Uralo-Siberian is a hypothetical language family consisting of Uralic, Yukaghir, Eskimo–Aleut, possibly Nivkh, and formerly Chukotko-Kamchatkan. It was proposed in 1998 by Michael Fortescue, an expert in Eskimo–Aleut and Chukotko-Kamchatkan, in his book Language Relations across Bering Strait. In 2011, Fortescue removed Chukotko-Kamchatkan from the proposal.[1]
Uralo-Siberian | |
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(hypothetical) | |
Geographic distribution | Northern Eurasia, the Arctic |
Linguistic classification | Proposed language family |
Subdivisions |
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Glottolog | None |
Structural similarities between Uralic and Eskimo–Aleut languages were observed early. In 1746, the Danish theologian Marcus Wøldike [da] compared Greenlandic to Hungarian. In 1818, Rasmus Rask considered Greenlandic to be related to the Uralic languages, Finnish in particular, and presented a list of lexical correspondences (Rask also considered Uralic and Altaic to be related to each other). In 1959, Knut Bergsland published the paper The Eskimo–Uralic Hypothesis, in which he, like other authors before him, presented a number of grammatical similarities and a small number of lexical correspondences. In 1962, Morris Swadesh proposed a relationship between the Eskimo–Aleut and Chukotko-Kamchatkan language families. In 1998, Michael Fortescue presented more detailed arguments in his book, Language Relations across Bering Strait. His title evokes Morris Swadesh's 1962 article, "Linguistic relations across the Bering Strait".
Michael Fortescue (2017) presents, besides new linguistic evidence, also several genetic studies, that support a common origin of the included groups, with a suggested homeland in Northeast Asia.[2]
In 2022, a group of scholars noted that "the morphosyntactic typology of Uralic is distinctive in western Eurasia. A number of typological properties are eastern-looking overall, fitting comfortably into northeast Asia, Siberia, or the North Pacific Rim".[3]
Fortescue (1998, pp. 60–95) surveys 44 typological markers and argues that a typological profile uniquely identifying the language families proposed to comprise the Uralo-Siberian family can be established. The Uralo-Siberian hypothesis is rooted in the assumption that this distinct typological profile was, rather than an areal profile common to four unrelated language families, the profile of a single language ancestral to all four: Proto-Uralo-Siberian.
None of the four families shows all of these 17 features; ranging from 12 reconstructible in Proto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan to 16 in Proto-Uralic. Frequently the modern-day descendant languages have diverged further from this profile — particularly Itelmen, for which Fortescue assumes substrate influence from a language typologically more alike to the non-Uralo-Siberian languages of the region.
Several more widely spread typologically significant features may also instead represent contact influence, according to Fortescue (1998):
Apparently shared elements of Uralo-Siberian morphology include the following:
*-t | plural |
*-k | dual |
*m- | 1st person |
*t- | 2nd person |
*ka | interrogative pronoun |
*-n | genitive case |
Proponents of the Nostratic hypothesis consider these apparent correspondences to be evidence in support of the proposed larger Nostratic family.
Fortescue (1998) lists 94 lexical correspondence sets with reflexes in at least three of the four language families, and even more shared by two of the language families. Examples are *ap(p)a 'grandfather', *kað'a 'mountain' and many others.
Below are some lexical items reconstructed to Proto-Uralo-Siberian, along with their reflexes in Proto-Uralic, Proto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan (sometimes Proto-Chukchi), and Proto-Eskimo–Aleut (sometimes Proto-Eskimo or Aleut). (Source: Fortescue 1998:152–158.)
Proto-Uralo-Siberian | Proto-Uralic | Proto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan | Proto-Eskimo–Aleut |
---|---|---|---|
*aj(aɣ)- 'push forward' | *aja- 'drive, chase' | *aj-tat- 'chase, herd' (PC) | *ajaɣ- 'push, thrust at with pole' |
*ap(p)a 'grandfather' | *appe 'father in law' | *æpæ 'grandfather' | *ap(p)a 'grandfather' |
*el(l)ä 'not' | *elä 'not' | *ællæ 'not' (PC) | *-la(ɣ)- 'not' (A) |
*pit(uɣ)- 'tie up' | *pitV- 'tie' (FU) | *pət- 'tie up' | *pətuɣ- 'tie up' |
*toɣə- 'take' | *toɣe- 'bring, take, give' (FU) | *teɣiŋrə- 'pull out' | *teɣu- 'take' (PE) |
These sound correspondences with Yukaghir were suggested in Fortescue (1998):[4]
Yukaghir | Proto-Eskimo-Aleut |
---|---|
l/l’ | Ø-/-l- |
-nt | -t-/-n |
-nc’- | -t- |
-ŋk- | -k- |
-mp- | -p- |
w | Ø-/-v- |
j | Ø-/-y- |
-ɣ- | -ɣ-/-R- (and -k-/-q-) |
-r- | -l/ð- |
Yukaghir and Uralic:[5]
Uralic | Yukaghir |
---|---|
kk | k |
tt | t/δ |
pp | p |
mp | pp |
Uralic | EA[6][7][8] |
---|---|
s | Ø |
a | sa |
l | t |
m | m |
x | v |
s | Ø |
d | ð |
k | ɣ |
t | c |
j | y/i |
n | ŋ |
tä | ci |
ti | cai |
ü | u |
Uralic *t- : Eskimo *t- (before a Uralic back vowel)
Uralic *t- : Eskimo *c- (before a Uralic front vowel)
Uralic *ń- : Eskimo *Ø-
Uralic *Ø- : Eskimo *n-
Proto-Yukagir | Proto-Eskimo-Aleut |
---|---|
*aka 'elder brother' | *akkak 'uncle' |
*al 'below' | *atə 'below' |
*amlə 'swallow' | *ama 'suckle' |
*aŋa 'mouth' | *aŋ-va- 'open' |
*carqə- 'bent' | *caqə- 'turn, move away' |
*cowinə 'spear' | *caviɣ 'knife' |
*kin 'who' | *kina 'who' |
*ləɣ- 'eat' | *iɣa- 'swallow' |
*mel 'breast' | *məluɣ 'breast' |
*qar 'skin, cover' | *qaðə 'surface of something' |
*um 'close' | *uməɣ 'close' |
*n’ə 'get' | *nəɣ 'get' |
*para 'origin' | *paðə 'opening' |
*ta 'that' | *ta 'that' |
*ŋōlā 'become' | *-ŋŋuR 'become' |
*puɣö 'heat, sun' | *puqla ‘heat, hot water’ |
*u:- ‘roast, fry’ | *uɣu- ‘be cooked, heated up’ |
*l’ə- ‘be’ | *-li- ‘become’ |
*emä ‘mother’ | *PY əma ‘grandmother’ |
*an- ‘speak’ | *anəR- ‘breathe (out)’ |
*jeŋkilə ‘fire’ | *ək-nəR ‘fire’ |
*ci:daɣa ‘ground squirrel’ | *cikðiɣ ‘(ground) squirrel’ |
*n’e:- ‘call, tell’ | *nəpə ‘sound, voice’ |
Uralic | Eskimo-Aleut[8] |
---|---|
*ila 'under' | *at(ǝ) 'down' |
*elä 'live' | *ǝt(ǝ) 'be' |
*tuli 'come' | *tut 'arrive, land' |
*kuda 'morning, dawn' | *qilaɣ 'sky' |
*ke 'who' | *kina 'who' |
*to 'that' | *ta 'that' |
*kuda 'weave' | *qilaɣ 'weave' |
The meanings 'weave' and 'morning' are most likely unrelated, which means that these are instances of coincidental homonymy, which only very rarely happens by chance, which means that some kind of contact most likely happened, but exact conclusions cannot be drawn with modern information.[8][11]
Proto-Uralic | Proto-Yukaghir |
---|---|
*käliw 'sibling-in-law' | *käli |
*wanča 'root' | *wanča |
*iś/ća 'father' | *iśa |
*lunta 'bird' | *lunta |
*toxi- 'to bring' | *toxi |
*ela 'under' | *ola |
Proto-Uralic and Proto-Eskimo-Aleut number and case markers:[7]
Proto-Uralic | Proto-Eskimo-Aleut | |
---|---|---|
nom./absolutive sing. | Ø | Ø |
dual | *-kə | *k |
plural | *-t | *-t |
locative | *-(kə)na | *-ni |
accusative sing | *-m | – |
plural accusative | *-j/i | *-(ŋ)i |
ablative | *-(kə)tə | *-kənc |
dative/lative | *-kə/-ŋ | *-ŋun |
Yukaghir and Proto-Eskimo-Aleut verbal and nominal inflections:[4]
Pronoun | Yukaghir | Eskimo-Aleut |
---|---|---|
trans. 1s | *ŋ | *ŋa |
3pl | *ŋi | *ŋi |
3 poss. | *ntə | *n |
vialis | *-(n)kən | *-(n)kən |
abl. | *-(n)kət | *(m/n)əɣ |
all | *(ŋi)n’ | *-(m/n)un / *ŋus/*-ŋun |
adv. loc./lative | *nə | *nə |
Possessive suffixes:[12]
Pronoun | Samoyedic | Eskimo-Aleut |
---|---|---|
1sg | *mǝ | *m(ka) |
2sg | *tǝ | *t |
3sg | *sa | *sa |
1pl | *mat | *mǝt |
2pl | *tat | *tǝt |
3pl | *iton | *sat |
Nenets accusative and Eskimo relative possessive affixes[7]
1sg | 2sg | 4sg | 1pl | 2pl | 4pl |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ma | vət/mət | mi | mta | vci/mci | məŋ |
sg1 | 2sg | 3sg | 1pl | 2pl | 3pl |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
m'i/mə | mtə | mtab | waq/mat | mtaq/mtat | mtoh/mton |
Fortescue did not consider Nivkh a part of Uralo-Siberian. However, Frederik Kortlandt considers Nivkh part of Uralo-Siberian, as well as Indo-Uralic: some evidences for the relationship are: Uralic participle *-pa and Nivkh Gerund: *-pa. The pronouns *mi, *ti compared to Nivkh: n´i and či.[13]
Fortescue at first included Chukotko-Kamchatkan in the family, but later concluded that the similarities are due to mutual influence. Fortescue also said that Chukotko-Kamchatkan has more similarities with Nivkh.[14]
Person | EA | CK |
---|---|---|
1s | *(t)ŋa/ka | *kəm |
1d | *kuɣ | *mək |
1p | *kut/vut | *mət |
2s | *n/t/tən/kən | *kəð |
2d | *ðəɣ, təɣ | *tək |
2p | *ði/ci | *turi |
CK | Uralic |
---|---|
*ajtat 'chase' | *aja 'drive, chase' |
*ajval 'wind side' | *saja 'shelter' |
*ajwa 'brain | *ojwa 'head' |
*ær 'flow out' | *sarV 'current' |
*jæɣ 'foot' | *jalka 'foot, leg' |
*jət 'go for' | *juta 'go' |
*kəɣwa 'dry up' | *kuiva 'dry' (Finnish) |
*tava 'crush' | *tappa 'hit' |
*tæjkə 'do, make' | *teke 'do' |
*təlvə 'burn' | *tule 'fire' |
*təlæ 'go' | *tule 'come' |
*wəltə 'close together' | *welje 'brother' |
Nivkh | CK |
---|---|
*aui 'mouth' | *æw 'get a hole' |
*kama 'run' | *kame 'move around' |
*juty 'pour' | *jit 'drip' |
*poju 'smoke' (verb) | *pujæ 'cook on hot stones in pit' |
*t'am 'stay calm' | *təmɣə 'stay still, calm' |
*uige 'no' | *ujŋæ 'no' |
Proto-Uralo-Siberian lexical reconstructions by Michael Fortescue (2011) are:[1]: 152–159
Proto-Uralo-Siberian | Meaning |
---|---|
*aj(aɣ)- | push forward |
*al(a)/*ïl(a) | below |
*am(u)- | scoop up |
*an’a | older female relative |
*aŋə | opening |
*ap(p)a/*ïp(p)ï | grandfather |
*äk(k)ä | male relative (of father) |
*än(ə)-/*an(əɣ)- | breathe |
*ciɣ(uɣ)/*cuɣ(uɣ) | sand |
*el(ä)- | be, exist |
*el(l)ä | not |
*emä | mother |
*ilu- | move |
*imə(ɣ)- | suck (breast) |
*jav(a) | way over there, behind |
*jeləɣ- | burn |
*joŋk(əɣ)- | nose, tip |
*jutə(ɣ)- | go (in)to |
*ka/*ko | what |
*kað’a | mountain |
*kanə- | go off |
*kan(iɣ) | cold, winter |
*kälə- | wade across |
*käl(uɣ)- | lace up |
*käm(əɣ)- | hard, strong |
*käm(əɣ) | footwear |
*keðe(ɣ) | warmth, summer |
*kerə/*korə | skin |
*ki | who |
*kiɣ(aɣ)- | perforate |
*koj(ra) | male animal |
*kuð’(ə)/*kul’(ə) | above, cover |
*kule- | make sound |
*kumə- | flow |
*kunta | fellow(s), tribe |
*kurə(ɣ)- | tie |
*le- | become |
*lepa-/*lempa- | flap |
*lep(p)ə | oar |
*lup(sa) | liquid |
*mal(iɣ)/*mïl(iɣ) | wave |
*mäkə- | go up |
*mäl(kə) | chest |
*me | here, this |
*menə- | go |
*mi | what |
*muɣə- | roam |
*na/*nä | this |
*naj(aɣ) | girl |
*nimə | name, call |
*n’ar(u) | skin with hair removed |
*n’ik(a)- | bend down |
*n’om(əɣ)- | squeeze, roll up |
*o(w)- | this, that |
*oj(wa) | head, neck |
*ol(u) | cheek, jaw |
*paŋkiɣ- | grasp |
*pat’k(ə)- | penetrate |
*päŋə | top |
*pejə(ɣ)-/*pojə(ɣ)- | cook, steam |
*pel(ju) | leaf or ear |
*pel(aɣ)- | cut up, flense |
*pit(uɣ)- | tie up |
*poŋkə | hillock |
*pura- | go in |
*puwə-/*puɣə- | swell |
*sac’(c’)a(ɣ)- | paternal aunt |
*saɣə- | come, go |
*sarə- | flow down or out |
*seɣə- | eat |
*soŋə- | get into/*onto s.th. |
*sula- | thaw |
*s’akə-/*s’äkə- | freeze |
*s’ap(p)ə- | hack |
*s’äŋkə- | break |
*s’ep(u) | neck |
*s’erä | surroundings, nature |
*s’om(eɣ)- | worry, think |
*s’up(p)ə- | cut or stab |
*ta | that |
*tap(p)a(ɣ)- | strike |
*teŋ(ä)- | fly up |
*toɣə- | take |
*tuðka | tip |
*tuɣlï/*tiluɣ | wing, feather |
*tup(əɣ)- | cover |
*t’ant’ə-/*t’unt’ə- | step |
*t’ono/*t’eno | back |
*uɣ(ə)-/*uj(ə)- | cook over fire |
*wejə- | flow |
*wel(ja) | thing or person next to |
*wen(i)- | stretch skin out to dry |
*wolə(ɣ) | knife, cut |
Fortescue argues that the Uralo-Siberian proto-language (or a complex of related proto-languages) may have been spoken by Mesolithic hunting and fishing people in south-central Siberia (roughly, from the upper Yenisei river to Lake Baikal) between 8000 and 6000 BC, and that the proto-languages of the derived families may have been carried northward out of this homeland in several successive waves down to about 4000 BC, leaving the Samoyedic branch of Uralic in occupation of the Urheimat thereafter.
Some or all of the four Uralo-Siberian families have been included in more extensive groupings of languages (see links below). Fortescue's hypothesis does not oppose or exclude these various proposals. In particular, he considers that a remote relationship between Uralo-Siberian and Altaic (or some part of Altaic) is likely (see Ural–Altaic languages). However, Fortescue holds that Uralo-Siberian lies within the bounds of the provable, whereas Nostratic may be too remote a grouping to ever be convincingly demonstrated.
The University of Leiden linguist Frederik Kortlandt (2006:1) asserts that Indo-Uralic (a proposed language family consisting of Uralic and Indo-European) is itself a branch of Uralo-Siberian and that, furthermore, the Nivkh language also belongs to Uralo-Siberian. This would make Uralo-Siberian the proto-language of a much vaster language family. Kortlandt (2006:3) considers that Uralo-Siberian and Altaic (defined by him as consisting of Turkic, Mongolian, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese) may be coordinate branches of the Eurasiatic language family proposed by Joseph Greenberg but rejected by most linguists.
I would no longer wish to relate CK directly to [Uralo-Siberian], although I believe that some of the lexical evidence [...] will hold up in terms of borrowing/diffusion.
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