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Cumbric was a variety of the Common Brittonic language spoken during the Early Middle Ages in the Hen Ogledd or "Old North" in what is now Northern England and southern Lowland Scotland.[2] It was closely related to Old Welsh and the other Brittonic languages. Place name evidence suggests Cumbric may also have been spoken as far south as Pendle and the Yorkshire Dales. The prevailing view is that it became extinct in the 12th century, after the incorporation of the semi-independent Kingdom of Strathclyde into the Kingdom of Scotland.

Cumbric
RegionNorthern England & Southern Scotland
Extinct12th century[1]
Language family
Language codes
ISO 639-3xcb
Linguist List
xcb
GlottologNone
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Problems with terminology


Dauvit Broun sets out the problems with the various terms used to describe the Cumbric language and its speakers.[3] The people seem to have called themselves *Cumbri the same way that the Welsh called themselves Cymry (most likely from reconstructed Brittonic *kom-brogī meaning "fellow countrymen"). The Welsh and the Cumbric-speaking people of what are now southern Scotland and northern England probably felt they were actually one ethnic group. Old Irish speakers called them "Britons", Bretnach, or Bretain.[4] The Norse called them Brettar.[5] In Latin, the terms Cymry and Cumbri were Latinised as Cambria and Cumbria respectively. In Medieval Latin, the English term Welsh became Wallenses ("of Wales"), while the term Cumbrenses referred to Cumbrians ("of Cumbria").[6] However, in Scots, a Cumbric speaker seems to have been called Wallace – from the Scots Wallis/Wellis "Welsh".[citation needed]

The Cumbric region: modern counties and regions with the early mediæval kingdoms
The Cumbric region: modern counties and regions with the early mediæval kingdoms

In Cumbria itaque: regione quadam inter Angliam et Scotiam sita "Cumbria: a region situated between England and Scotland".[7]

The Latinate term Cambria is often used for Wales; nevertheless, the Life of St Kentigern (c. 1200) by Jocelyn of Furness has the following passage:

When King Rederech (Rhydderch Hael) and his people had heard that Kentigern had arrived from Wallia [i.e. Wales] into Cambria [i.e. Cumbria], from exile into his own country, with great joy and peace both king and people went out to meet him.[8]

John T. Koch defined the specifically Cumbric region as "the area approximately between the line of the River Mersey and the Forth-Clyde Isthmus", but went on to include evidence from the Wirral Peninsula in his discussion and did not define its easterly extent.[2] Kenneth H. Jackson described Cumbric as "the Brittonic dialect of Cumberland, Westmorland, northern Lancashire, and south-west Scotland" and went on to define the region further as being bound in the north by the Firth of Clyde, in the south by the River Ribble and in the east by the Southern Scottish Uplands and the Pennine Ridge.[9]


Available evidence


Linguistic division in early twelfth century Scotland..mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}  Gaelic speaking  Norse-Gaelic zone  English-speaking zone  Cumbric zone
Linguistic division in early twelfth century Scotland.
  Gaelic speaking
  Norse-Gaelic zone
  English-speaking zone
  Cumbric zone

The evidence from Cumbric comes almost entirely through secondary sources, since no known contemporary written records of the language survive. The majority of evidence comes from place names of the north of England and the south of Scotland. Other sources include the personal names of Strathclyde Britons in Scottish, Irish, and Anglo-Saxon sources, and a few Cumbric words surviving into the High Middle Ages in southwest Scotland as legal terms. Although the language is long extinct, traces of its vocabulary arguably have persisted into the modern era in the form of "counting scores" and in a handful of dialectal words.

From this scanty evidence, little can be deduced about the singular characteristics of Cumbric, not even the name by which its speakers referred to it. However, linguists generally agree that Cumbric was a Western Brittonic language closely related to Welsh and, more distantly, to Cornish and Breton.[10][11][12]

Around the time of the battle described in the poem Y Gododdin, c. 600, Common Brittonic is believed to have been transitioning into its daughter languages: Cumbric in North Britain, Old Welsh in Wales, and Southwestern Brittonic, the ancestor of Cornish and Breton.[13] Kenneth Jackson concludes that the majority of changes that transformed British into Primitive Welsh belong to the period from the middle of the fifth to the end of the sixth century.[14] This involved syncope and the loss of final syllables. If the poem ultimately dates to this time, it would have originally been written in an early form of Cumbric, the usual name for the Brythonic speech of the Hen Ogledd;[15] Jackson suggested the name "Primitive Cumbric" for the dialect spoken at the time.[16] However, scholars date the poem to between the 7th and the early 11th centuries, and the earliest surviving manuscript of it dates to the 13th, written in Old Welsh and Middle Welsh.[17]


Place names


Cumbric place-names occur in Scotland south of the firths of Forth and Clyde. Brittonic names north of this line are Pictish. Cumbric names are also found commonly in the historic county of Cumberland and in bordering areas of Northumberland. They are less common in Westmorland, east Northumberland, and Durham, with some in Lancashire and the adjoining areas of North Yorkshire. Approaching Cheshire, late Brittonic placenames are probably better characterised as Welsh rather than as Cumbric. As noted below, however, any clear distinction between Cumbric and Welsh is difficult to prove.[5][18][9] Many Brittonic place-names remain in these regions which should not be described as Cumbric, such as Leeds, Manchester and York, because they were coined in a period before Brittonic split into Cumbric and its sister dialects.

Some of the principal towns and cities of the region have names of Cumbric origin, including:

Several supposed Cumbric elements occur repeatedly in place names of the region. The following table lists some of them according to the modern Welsh equivalent:

Element (Welsh)MeaningPlace names
blaenend, point, summit; source of riverBlencathra, Blencogow, Blindcrake, Blencarn, Blennerhassett
caerfort, stronghold; wall, rampartCarlisle, Cardew, Cardurnock, Carfrae, Cargo, Carlanrig, Carriden, Castle Carrock, Cathcart, Caerlaverock, Cardonald, Cramond, Carleith
coedtrees, forest, woodBathgate, Dalkeith, Culgaith, Tulketh, Culcheth, Pencaitland, Penketh, Towcett, Dankeith, Culgaith, Cheadle, Cheetham, Cathcart, Cheetwood, Cathpair, Kincaid, Inchkeith
cwmdeep narrow valley; hollow, bowl-shaped depressionCumrew, Cumwhitton, Cumwhinton, Cumdivock
drum, trumridgeDrumlanrig, Dundraw, Mindrum, Drumburgh, Drem, Drumaben
eglwyschurchEcclefechan, Ecclesmachan, Eccleston, Eccles, Terregles, Egglescliffe, Eggleshope, Ecclaw, Ecclerigg, Dalreagle, Eggleston, possibly Eaglesfield
llannerchclearing, gladeBarlanark, Carlanrig, Drumlanrig, Lanark[shire], Lanercost
moelbald; (bare) mountain/hill, summitMellor, Melrose, Mallerstang
penhead; top, summit; source of stream; headland; chief, principalPennygant Hill, Pen-y-Ghent, Penrith, Penruddock, Pencaitland, Penicuik, Penpont, Penketh, Pendle, Penshaw, Pemberton, Penistone, Pen-bal Crag, Penwortham, Torpenhow
prentree; timber; crossTraprain Law, Barnbougle, Pirn, Pirncader, Pirniehall, Pirny Braes, Primrose, Prendwick
treftown, homestead, estate, townshipLongniddry, Niddrie, Ochiltree, Soutra, Terregles, Trabroun, Trailtrow, Tranent, Traprain Law, Traquair, Treales, Triermain, Trostrie, Troughend, Tranew; possibly Bawtry, Trafford

Some Cumbric names have historically been replaced by Scottish Gaelic, Middle English, or Scots equivalents, and in some cases the different forms occur in the historical record.


Counting systems


Among the evidence that Cumbric might have influenced local English dialects are a group of counting systems, or scores, recorded in various parts of northern England. Around 100 of these systems have been collected since the 18th century; the scholarly consensus is that these derive from a Brittonic language closely related to Welsh.[23] Though they are often referred to as "sheep-counting numerals", most recorded scores were not used to count sheep, but in knitting or for children's games or nursery rhymes.[23] These scores are often suggested to represent a survival from medieval Cumbric, a theory first popularized in the 19th century.[23] However, later scholars came to reject this idea, suggesting instead that the scores were later imports from either Wales or Scotland, but in light of the dearth of evidence one way or another, Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Heli Paulasto posit that it remains plausible that the counting systems are indeed of Cumbric origin.[23]

Cumbric, in common with other Brythonic languages, uses a vigesimal counting system, i.e. numbering up to twenty, with intermediate numbers for ten and fifteen. Therefore, after numbering one to ten, numbers follow the format one-and-ten, two-and-ten etc. to fifteen, then one-and-fifteen, two-and-fifteen to twenty. The dialect words for the numbers themselves show much variation across the region. (see chart)

Counting systems of possible Cumbric origin; modern Welsh, Cornish, and Breton included for comparison.
Nr. Keswick Westmorland Eskdale Millom High Furness Wasdale Teesdale Swaledale Wensleydale Ayrshire Modern Welsh Modern Cornish Modern Breton
1 yan yan yaena aina yan yan yan yahn yan yinty un onan, unn unan
2 tyan tyan taena peina taen taen tean tayhn tean tinty dau m, dwy f dew m, diw f daou m, div f
3 tethera tetherie teddera para tedderte tudder tetherma tether tither tetheri tri m, tair f' tri m, teyr f tri m, ter f
4 methera peddera meddera pedera medderte anudder metherma mether mither metheri pedwar m, pedair f peswar m, peder f pevar m, peder f
5 pimp gip pimp pimp pimp nimph pip mimp[h] pip bamf pump pymp pemp
6 sethera teezie hofa ithy haata
lezar hith-her teaser leetera chwech hwegh c'hwec'h
7 lethera mithy lofa mithy slaata
azar lith-her leaser seetera saith seyth seizh
8 hovera katra seckera owera lowera
catrah anver catra over wyth eth eizh
9 dovera hornie leckera lowera dowa
horna danver horna dover naw naw nav
10 dick dick dec dig dick
dick dic dick dik deg deg dek
15 bumfit bumfit bumfit bumfit mimph
bumfit mimphit bumper
pymtheg pymthek pemzek
20 giggot
jiggit
ugain ugens ugent

Scots and English


A number of words occurring in the Scots and Northern English variants of English have been proposed as being of possible Brittonic origin.[24] Ascertaining the real derivation of these words is far from simple, due in part to the similarities between some cognates in the Brittonic and Goidelic languages and the fact that borrowing took place in both directions between these languages.

Another difficulty lies with other words which were taken into Old English, as in many cases it is impossible to tell whether the borrowing is directly from Brittonic or not (e.g. Brogat, Crag, below). The following are possibilities:


Equivalence with Old Welsh


The linguistic term Cumbric is defined according to geographical rather than linguistic criteria: that is, it refers to the variety of Brittonic spoken within a particular region of North Britain[2] and implies nothing about that variety except that it was geographically distinct from other varieties. This has led to a discussion about the nature of Cumbric and its relationship with other Brittonic languages, in particular with Old Welsh.

Linguists appear undecided as to whether Cumbric should be considered a separate language, or a dialect of Old Welsh. Koch calls it a dialect but goes on to say that some of the place names in the Cumbric region "clearly reflect a developed medieval language, much like Welsh, Cornish or Breton".[2] Jackson also calls it a dialect but points out that "to call it Pr[imitive] W[elsh] would be inaccurate",[9] so clearly views it as distinct in some meaningful respect.

It has been suggested that Cumbric was more closely aligned to the Pictish language[29] than to Welsh, though there is considerable debate regarding the classification of that language. On the basis of place name evidence it has also been proposed that all three languages were very similar.[30]

The whole question is made more complex because there is no consensus as to whether any principled distinction can be made between languages and dialects.

Below, some of the proposed differences between Cumbric and Old Welsh are discussed.


Retention of Brittonic *rk


In Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, the Common Brittonic cluster *rk was spirantized to /rx/ (Welsh rch, Cornish rgh, Breton rc'h) but a number of place names appear to show Cumbric retained the stop in this position. Lanark and Lanercost are thought to contain the equivalent of Welsh llannerch 'clearing'.[22]

There is evidence to the contrary, however, including the place names Powmaughan and Maughanby (containing Welsh Meirchion)[19] and the word kelchyn (related to Welsh cylch).[9] Jackson concludes that the change of Common Brittonic *rk > /rx/ "may have been somewhat later in Cumbric".[9]


Retention of Brittonic *mb


There is evidence to suggest that the consonant cluster mb remained distinct in Cumbric later than the time it was assimilated to mm in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. The cluster remains in:

Jackson notes that only in the north does the cluster appear in place names borrowed after circa 600AD and concludes that it may have been a later dialectal survival here.


Syncope


Jackson notes the legal term galnys, equivalent to Welsh galanas, may show syncope of internal syllables to be a feature of Cumbric. Further evidence is wanting, however.


Devoicing


James[29] mentions that devoicing appears to be a feature of many Cumbric place names. Devoicing of word final consonants is a feature of modern Breton[31] and, to an extent, Cornish.[32] Watson[18] notes initial devoicing in Tinnis Castle (in Drumelzier) (compare Welsh dinas 'fortress, city') as an example of this, which can also be seen in the Cornish Tintagel, din 'fort'. Also notable are the different English names of two Welsh towns named Dinbych ('little fort'); Denbigh and Tenby.

There is also a significant number of place names which do not support this theory. Devoke Water and Cumdivock (< Dyfoc, according to Ekwall) and Derwent (< Common Brittonic Derwentiō) all have initial /d/. The name Calder (< Brit. *Caletodubro-) in fact appears to show a voiced Cumbric consonant where Welsh has Calettwr by provection, which Jackson believes reflects an earlier stage of pronunciation. Jackson also notes that Old English had no internal or final /ɡ/, so would be borrowed with /k/ by sound substitution. This can be seen in names with c, k, ck (e.g. Cocker < Brittonic *kukro-,[19][clarification needed] Eccles < Brittonic eglēsia[9]).


Loss of /w/


The Cumbric personal names Gospatrick, Gososwald and Gosmungo meaning 'servant of St...' (Welsh, Cornish, Breton gwas 'servant, boy') and the Galloway dialect word gossock 'short, dark haired inhabitant of Wigtownshire' (W. gwasog 'a servant'[18]) apparently show that the Cumbric equivalent of Welsh and Cornish gwas & B gwaz 'servant' was *gos.[18] Jackson suggests that it may be a survival of the original Proto-Celtic form of the word in –o- (i.e. *uɸo-sto[9]).

This idea is disputed by the Dictionary of the Scots Language;[33] and the occurrence in Gospatrick's Writ of the word wassenas 'dependants',[5][34] thought to be from the same word gwas, is evidence against Jackson's theory. Koch notes that the alternation between gwa- and go- is common among the Brittonic languages and does not amount to a systematic sound change in any of them.

Thomas Clancy opined that the royal feminine personal name in Life of Kentigern, Languoreth, demonstrates the presence of /gw/ Cumbric.[35]

It is noteworthy that the toponym Brenkibeth in Cumberland (now Burntippet; possibly bryn, "hill" + gwyped, "gnats") may display this syllable anglicized as -k-.[36] The name, however, may not be Brittonic at all, and instead be of Scandinavian origin.[36]


Semantics of Penn


In the Book of Aneirin, a poem entitled "Peis Dinogat" (possibly set in the Lake District of Cumbria), contains a usage of the word penn "head" (attached to the names of several animals hunted by the protagonist), that is unique in medieval Welsh literature and may, according to Koch, reflect Cumbric influence ("[r]eferring to a single animal in this way is otherwise found only in Breton, and we have no evidence that the construction ever had any currency in the present-day Wales").[2] The relevant lines are:

Pan elei dy dat ty e vynyd
Dydygei ef penn ywrch penn gwythwch penn hyd
Penn grugyar vreith o venyd
Penn pysc o rayadyr derwennyd

Translated as:

When your father went to [the] mountain
He brought a head of buck, head of wild pig, head of stag
Head of speckled grouse from [the] mountain
Head of fish from [the] falls of Derwent

The form derwennydd however, is at odds with the absence of the ending -ydd noted below.

It is to be noted, however, that such semantics are probably archaisms, and rather than being features diagnostic of linguistic distinctiveness, are more likely to be legacies of features once common to all Brittonic speech.[37]


Definite article


The modern Brittonic languages have different forms of the definite article: Welsh yr, -'r, y, Cornish an, and Breton an, ar, al. These are all taken to derive from an unstressed form of the Common Brittonic demonstrative *sindos, altered by assimilation (compare the Gaelic articles).[9] Throughout Old Welsh the article is ir (or -r after a vowel),[38] but there is evidence in Cumbric for an article in -n alongside one in -r. Note the following:


Absence of -ydd


Of all the names of possible Cumbric derivation, few are more certain than Carlisle and Derwent which can be directly traced back to their Romano-British recorded forms Luguvalium and Derventio.

The modern and medieval forms of Carlisle (Luel c1050, Cardeol 1092, Karlioli c1100 (in the Medieval Latin genitive case), Cærleoil 1130) and Derwent (Deorwentan stream c890 (Old English), Derewent) suggest derivations from Br *Luguvaljon and *Derwentjō. But the Welsh forms Caerliwelydd and Derwennydd are derived from alternative forms *Luguvalijon, *Derwentijō[9] which gave the -ydd ending. This appears to show a divergence between Cumbric and Welsh at a relatively early date.

If this was an early dialectal variation, it can't be applied as a universal sound law, as the equivalent of W mynydd 'mountain' occurs in a number of Cumbric names with the spirant intact: E.g. Mindrum (Minethrum 1050) from 'mountain ridge' (Welsh mynydd trum).[22] It might also be noted that Medieval Welsh forms of Caerliwelydd[40] and Derwennydd[41] both occur in poems of supposed Cumbrian origin whose rhyme and metre would be disrupted if the ending were absent.

Of additional relevance is that Guto Rhys demonstrated "some robust proof" of the presence of the -ydd ending in the closely-aligned Pictish language.[42]


Use of the name element Gos-


One particularly distinctive element of Cumbric is the repeated use of the element Gos- or Cos- (W. gwas 'boy, lad; servant, attendant') in personal names, followed by the name of a saint. The practice is reminiscent of Gaelic names such as Maol Choluim "Malcolm" and Gille Crìosd "Gilchrist", which have Scottish Gaelic maol (Old Irish máel 'bald, tonsured; servant') and gille ('servant, lad', < Old Irish gilla 'a youth').

The most well-known example of this Cumbric naming practice is Gospatric, which occurs as the name of several notable Anglo-Scottish noblemen in the 11th and 12th centuries. Other examples, standardised from original sources, include Gosmungo (Saint Mungo), Gososwald (Oswald of Northumbria) and Goscuthbert (Cuthbert).[6][43]


Date of extinction


It is impossible to give an exact date of the extinction of Cumbric. However, there are some pointers which may give a reasonably accurate estimate. In the mid-11th century, some landowners still bore what appear to be Cumbric names. Examples of such landowners are Dunegal (Dyfnwal), lord of Strathnith or Nithsdale;[44] Moryn (Morien), lord of Cardew and Cumdivock near Carlisle; and Eilifr (Eliffer), lord of Penrith.[34]

There is a village near Carlisle called Cumwhitton (earlier Cumquinton). This appears to contain the Norman name Quinton, affixed to a cognate of the Welsh cwm, meaning valley.[5] There were no Normans in this area until 1069 at the earliest.

In the Battle of the Standard in 1138, the Cumbrians are noted as a separate ethnic group. Given that their material culture was very similar to their Gaelic and Anglian neighbours, it is arguable that what set them apart was still their language.[45] Also the castle at Castle Carrock – Castell Caerog – dates from around 1160–1170. Barmulloch, earlier Badermonoc (Cumbric "monk's dwelling"[46]), was given to the church by Malcolm IV of Scotland between 1153 and 1165.

A more controversial point is the surname Wallace. It means "Welshman". It is possible that all the Wallaces in the Clyde area were medieval immigrants from Wales, but given that the term was also used for local Cumbric-speaking Strathclyde Welsh, it seems equally, if not more, likely that the surname refers to people who were seen as being "Welsh" due to their Cumbric language.

Surnames in Scotland were not inherited before 1200 and not regularly until 1400. William Wallace (known in Gaelic as Uilleam Breatnach – namely William the Briton or Welshman) came from the Renfrew area – itself a Cumbric name. Wallace slew the sheriff of Lanark (also a Cumbric name) in 1297. Even if he had inherited the surname from his father, it is possible that the family spoke Cumbric within memory in order to be thus named.

There are also some historical pointers to a continuing separate ethnic identity. Prior to being crowned king of Scotland in 1124, David I was invested with the title Prince of the Cumbrians. William the Lion between 1173 and 1180 made an address to his subjects, identifying the Cumbrians as a separate group.[3] This does not prove that any of them still spoke Cumbric at this time.

The legal documents in the Lanercost Cartulary, dating from the late 12th century, show witnesses with Norman French or English names, and no obvious Cumbric names. Though these people represent the upper classes, it seems significant that by the late 12th century in the Lanercost area, Cumbric is not obvious in these personal names.[47] In 1262 in Peebles, jurymen in a legal dispute over peat cutting also have names which mostly appear Norman French or English,[48] but possible exceptions are Gauri Pluchan, Cokin Smith and Robert Gladhoc, where Gladhoc has the look of an adjectival noun similar to Welsh "gwladog" = "countryman".[49] In the charters of Wetherall Priory near Carlisle there is a monk called Robert Minnoc who appears as a witness to 8 charters dating from around 1260.[50] His name is variously spelled Minnoc/Minot/Mynoc and it is tempting to see an equivalent of the Welsh "mynach" – "Robert the Monk" here.

Given that in other areas which have given up speaking Celtic languages, the upper classes have generally become Anglicised before the peasantry, it is not implausible that the peasantry continued to speak Cumbric for at least a little while after. Around 1200 there is a list of the names of men living in the area of Peebles.[18] Amongst them are Cumbric names such as Gospatrick: servant or follower of Saint Patrick, Gosmungo: servant of Saint Mungo, Guososwald: servant of Oswald of Northumbria and Goscubrycht: servant of Cuthbert. Two of the saints – Oswald and Cuthbert — are from Northumbria showing influence on Cumbric not found in Welsh.

The royal seal of Alexander III of Scotland (who reigned 4 September 1241 – 19 March 1286) bore the title "Rex Scotorum et Britanniarum", or "King of Scots and Britons".

In 1305 Edward I of England prohibited the Leges inter Brettos et Scottos.[51] The term Brets or Britons refers to the native, traditionally Cumbric speaking people of southern Scotland and northern England as well as the Pictish speakers in Northern Scotland.

It seems that Cumbric could well have survived into the middle of the 12th century as a community language and even lasted into the 13th on the tongues of the last remaining speakers. Certain areas seem to be particularly dense in Cumbric place-names even down to very minor features. The two most striking of these are around Lanercost east of Carlisle and around Torquhan south of Edinburgh. If the 1262 names from Peebles do contain traces of Cumbric personal names then we can imagine Cumbric dying out between 1250 and 1300 at the very latest.


See also



Notes


  1. Nicolaisen, W. F. H. Scottish Place Names p. 131
  2. Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 515–516. ISBN 9781851094400.
  3. Broun, Dauvit (2004): 'The Welsh identity of the kingdom of Strathclyde, ca 900-ca 1200', Innes Review 55, pp 111–80.
  4. Dictionary of the Irish Language, Royal Irish Academy, 1983. Online
  5. Armstrong, A. M., Mawer, A., Stenton, F. M. and Dickens, B. (1952) The Place-Names of Cumberland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  6. Forbes, A. P. (1874) Lives of St. Ninian and St. Kentigern: compiled in the twelfth century
  7. Innes, Cosmo Nelson, (ed). (1843), Registrum Episcopatus Glasguensis; Munimenta Ecclesie Metropolitane Glasguensis a Sede Restaurata Seculo Incunte Xii Ad Reformatam Religionem, i, Edinburgh: The Bannatyne Club
  8. (1989) Two Celtic Saints: the lives of Ninian and Kentigern Lampeter: Llanerch Enterprises, p. 91.
  9. Jackson, K. H. (1956): Language and History in Early Britain, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
  10. Koch, John T. (ed.), Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, 2006, p. 516.
  11. Ball, Martin J.; Fife, James (eds.), The Celtic Languages, Taylor & Francis, 2002, p. 6.
  12. Jackson, Kenneth H. Language and History in Early Britain, Edinburgh University press, 1953, p. 10.
  13. Davies (2005), p. 232.
  14. Jackson (1953), pp 3–11; 690.
  15. Elliott (2005), p. 583.
  16. Jackson (1969), pp. 86, 90.
  17. Jackson, Kenneth H. (1969). The Gododdin: The Oldest Scottish Poem. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-85224-049-X.
  18. Watson, W. J. (1926): History of the Celtic Place-Names of Scotland, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
  19. Ekwall, E. (1960) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-names, 4th ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  20. Black, William George (1883). Transactions of the Glasgow Archaeological Society (Volume 2 ed.). Glasgow: J. Maclehose & Sons. pp. 219–228.
  21. Taylor, Simon (2015). "Beginnings: Early Times to 1560 – Neighbourhoods". The Glasgow Story. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
  22. Mills, A.D. (2003): Oxford Dictionary of British Place Names, Oxford: OUP
  23. Filppula, Klemola, & Paulasto, pp. 102–105.
  24. "Dictionary of the Scots Language".
  25. Convery, Anne, ed. (1993). Collins Spurrell Pocket Welsh Dictionary. Glasgow: HarperCollins.
  26. "Dictionary of the Scots Language". Retrieved 13 March 2011.
  27. Rollinson, William (1997). The Cumbrian Dictionary. Otley, UK: Smith Settle. ISBN 1-85825-067-6.
  28. MacBain, Alexander (1911). An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language. ISBN 9780901771681.
  29. James, A. G. (2008): 'A Cumbric Diaspora?' in Padel and Parsons (eds.) A Commodity of Good Names: essays in honour of Margaret Gelling, Shaun Tyas: Stamford, pp 187–203
  30. Taylor, S. and Markus, G. (2006) The Place-names of Fife: West Fife between Leven and Forth: v.1
  31. Hemon, R. & Everson, M. (trans.) (2007): Breton Grammar, Cathair na Mart, Éire: Evertype: p79
  32. Cornish Language Partnership (2007): 'A Proposed Standard Written Form of Cornish' available at http://kernowek.net/
  33. "Dictionary of the Scots Language".
  34. Phythian-Adams, Charles (1996): Land of the Cumbrians, Aldershot: Scolar Press
  35. Clancy, Thomas. "Logie: an ecclesiastical place-name element in eastern Scotland 75" (PDF). Retrieved 3 November 2020.
  36. James, Alan. "A Guide to the Place-Name Evidence" (PDF). SPNS - The Brittonic Language in the Old North. Retrieved 25 November 2018.
  37. Koch, John T (2006). Celtic Culture: Aberdeen breviary-celticism : Volume 1 of Celtic culture. ABC CLIO. p. 1444. ISBN 9781851094400.
  38. Morris-Jones, J. (1913): A Welsh Grammar Historical and Comparative, Oxford: OUP, p192
  39. Mackay, George (2002): Scottish Place Names, New Lanark: Lomond Books
  40. Morris-Jones, J. (1918): Taliesin, London: Society of Cymmrodorion p209 Chaer Liwelyd in Marwnad Rhun (Book of Taliesin)
  41. see extract from Peis Dinogat above
  42. Rhys, Guto (2015). Approaching the Pictish language: historiography, early evidence and the question of Pritenic (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Glasgow.
  43. Koch, J. T. (1983) 'The Loss of Final Syllables and Loss of Declension in Brittonic' in [Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 30: 214-220]
  44. Oram, R.(2000): The Lordship of Galloway, Edinburgh: John Donald
  45. Oram, Richard (2004), David: The King Who Made Scotland
  46. Taylor, Simon. "The Glasgow Story – Early Times to 1560". Taylor, Simon. "The Glasgow Story: Beginnings: Early Times to 1560". The Glasgow Story. Retrieved 2 August 2012.
  47. Todd, J. M. (ed.) (1991) The Lanercost Cartulary, Carlisle: CWAAS
  48. Chambers, W. (1864) A History of Peebleshire, Edinburgh: W & M Chambers
  49. Prifysgol Cymru. (2002) Geiriadur Prifysgol Cymru: Caerdydd: Gwasg Prifysgol Cymru
  50. Prescott, J. E. (ed.) (1897) Register of Wetheral Priory, Carlisle: CWAAS
  51. Barrow, G. W. S. (2005) Robert Bruce & the Community of the Realm of Scotland, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press

References





Attempted revival



На других языках


[de] Kumbrische Sprache

Kumbrisch ist eine keltische Sprache, die in einem Großteil von Cumbria, dem nördlichen Northumbria und den schottischen Central Lowlands bis etwa ins 11. Jahrhundert hinein gesprochen wurde.[1] Spuren des Kumbrischen haben sich vor allem in Ortsnamen erhalten.[2]
- [en] Cumbric

[es] Idioma cúmbrico

El cúmbrico, cumbrio, címbrico o cámbrico era un idioma celta britónico centrado en Cumbria, en el noroeste de Inglaterra, que se hablaba desde el sur de Escocia hasta el Gran Mánchester, es decir, en la región a la que los galeses llaman Yr Hen Ogledd 'El Viejo Norte'.

[it] Lingua cumbrica

Il cumbrico era una lingua celtica della Britannia settentrionale, parlata dalla Scozia meridionale alla zona di Manchester, che prende il suo nome dalla regione di Cumbria. Un tempo il cumbrico veniva chiamato gallese del nord mentre il cornico era detto gallese del sud (o occidentale).

[ru] Камбрийский язык

Камбри́йский язык (англ. Cumbriс) — мёртвый кельтский язык бриттской подгруппы, распространенный в прошлом на северо-западе Англии и, вероятно, на юге Шотландии, прежде чем бриттское население было полностью ассимилировано пришлыми англосаксами и гойделами. Памятников камбрийского языка почти не сохранилось, если не считать топонимов, некоторых личных топонимов и трёх слов в латинском тексте законов, восходящем к XI веку.



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