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ʼOle, also called ʼOlekha or Black Mountain Monpa, is possibly a Sino-Tibetan language spoken by about 1,000 people in the Black Mountains of Wangdue Phodrang and Trongsa Districts in western Bhutan. The term ʼOle refers to a clan of speakers.[2]

ʼOle
ʼOlekha, Monkha, Monpa, ʼOle Mönpa
Black Mountain Monpa
RegionBhutan
Native speakers
500 (2007)[1]
Language family
possibly Sino-Tibetan or a linguistic isolate
  • ʼOle
Writing system
Tibetan script
Language codes
ISO 639-3ole
Glottologolek1239
ELPOlekha
Rindzi Phup, one of the last speakers of the ʼOle Mönpa language. Photo by George van Driem
Rindzi Phup, one of the last speakers of the ʼOle Mönpa language. Photo by George van Driem

Locations


According to the Ethnologue, ʼOlekha is spoken in the following locations of Bhutan.

Dialects are separated by the Black Mountains.


Varieties


Black Mountain Monpa is spoken in at least 6 villages. The variety spoken in Rukha village, south-central Wangdi is known as ʼOlekha.[3] Out of a population of 100-150 people (about 15 households) in Rukha village, there is only one elderly female fluent speaker and two semi-fluent speakers of ʼOlekha.[3]

George van Driem (1992)[4] reports a Western dialect (spoken in Rukha and Reti villages) and Eastern dialect (spoken in Cungseng village).


History


ʼOle was unknown beyond its immediate area until 1990,[citation needed] and is now highly endangered, and was originally assumed to be East Bodish.[5] George van Driem described ʼOle as a remnant of the primordial population of the Black Mountains before the southward expansion of the ancient East Bodish tribes.[6]

More recently, Gwendolyn Hyslop (2016),[3] agreeing with van Driem, has suggested that ʼOle is an isolate branch of the Sino-Tibetan family that has been heavily influenced by East Bodish languages.[7] Because of the small number of cognates with East Bodish languages once loans are identified, Blench and Post provisionally treat ʼOle as a language isolate, not just an isolate within Sino-Tibetan.[5]


External relationships


ʼOle forms a distinct branch of Sino-Tibetan/Tibeto-Burman. it is not closely related to Tshangla language of eastern Bhutan, also called "Monpa" and predating Dzongkha in the region, which belongs to a different branch of the family.[7]

Gerber (2018)[8] notes that Black Mountain Mönpa has had extensive contact with Gongduk before the arrival of East Bodish languages in Bhutan. The following comparative vocabulary table from Gerber (2020) compares Gongduk, Black Mountain Mönpa, and Bjokapakha, which is a divergent Tshangla variety.[9]

GlossGongdukBlack Mountain MönpaBjokapakha
hair (on head) θɤmguluŋtsham
tongue dəlilíː
eye mikmek ~ mikmiŋ
ear nərəŋnaktaŋnabali
tooth ɤnáː ~ waːsha
bone rukɤŋɦɤtphok ~ yöphokkhaŋ
blood winiʔkɔkyi
hand/arm gurlɤk ~ lokgadaŋ
leg/foot bidɤʔdɤkpɛŋ ~ tɛ̤kɛŋbitiŋ
faeces kicokkhɨ
water dɤŋlicö, kheri
rain ghöŋamtsu
dog okicüla ~ khulakhu
pig donpɔkphakpa
fish kuŋwənye̤ŋa
louse dɤrθæːkshiŋ
bear bekpələwɤm ~ womomsha
son ledəbæθaːza
daughter medəbæmɛtzamin
name kətmön ~ minmɨŋ
house kiŋmhiː̤ ~ mhe̤ːphai
fire miáːmik ~ áːmit
to hear lə yu-goː-nai tha-
to see tɤŋ-tuŋ-thoŋ-
to look məl- ~ mɤt-mak-got-
to sit mi- ~ mu-buŋ- ~ bæŋ-laŋ-
to die komθ-θɛː- ~ θɛʔ-shi-
to kill tɤt-θüt- ~ θut- ~ θitshe-

Comparison of numerals:[9]

GlossGongdukBlack Mountain MönpaBjokapakha
one titɛkthur
two niktsənhüɲiktsiŋ
three towəsamsam
four piyəblöpshi
five ŋəwəlɔŋŋa
six kukpəo̤ːkkhuŋ
seven ðukpənyízum
eight yitpəjit [ʤit]yɪn
nine guwədoːgagu
ten deyəchöse

Comparison of pronouns:[9]

PronounGongdukBlack Mountain MönpaBjokapakha
1SG ðəjaŋ
2SG ginan
3SG gonhoʔma (MAS); hoʔmet (FEM)dan
1PL ðiŋɔŋdat (INCL); anak (EXCL)ai
2PL giŋiŋnaknai
3PL gonməthoʔoŋdai

Vocabulary


Hyslop (2016)[3] notes that ʼOlekha has borrowed heavily from East Bodish and Tibetic languages, but also has a layer of native vocabulary items. Numerals are mostly borrowed from East Bodish languages, while body parts and nature words are borrowed from both Tibetic and East Bodish languages. Hyslop (2016) lists the following ʼOlekha words of clearly indigenous (non-borrowed) origin.

The pronouns and lexical items for all foraged plants are also of indigenous origin. Additionally, the central vowel /ɤ/ and voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/ are only found in non-borrowed words.[3]

Words whose origin is not certain (i.e., may or may not be borrowed) are:[3]

The cardinal numerals are:[9]


References


  1. ʼOle at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. van Driem, George (July 1992). "In Quest of Mahākirānti" (PDF). Center of Nepal and Asian Studies Journal. 19 (2): 241–247. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  3. Gwendolyn Hyslop. 2016. Worlds of knowledge in Central Bhutan: Documentation of ʼOlekha. Language Documentation & Conservation 10. 77-106.
  4. van Driem, George. 1992. The Monpa language of the Black Mountains. Presented at ICSTLL 25.
  5. Blench, R. & Post, M. W. (2013). Rethinking Sino-Tibetan phylogeny from the perspective of Northeast Indian languages
  6. van Driem, George L. (1993). "Language Policy in Bhutan". London: SOAS, University of London. Archived from the original on 1 November 2010. Retrieved 18 January 2011.
  7. van Driem, George L. (2011). "Tibeto-Burman subgroups and historical grammar". Himalayan Linguistics Journal. 10 (1): 31–39. Archived from the original on 12 January 2012.
  8. Gerber, Pascal. 2018. Areal features in Gongduk, Bjokapakha and Black Mountain Mönpa phonology. Unpublished draft.
  9. Gerber, Pascal (2020). "Areal features in Gongduk, Bjokapakha and Black Mountain Mönpa phonology". Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 43 (1): 55–86. doi:10.1075/ltba.18015.ger. ISSN 0731-3500.

Further reading





На других языках


- [en] ʼOle language

[ru] Оле-кха

Оле-кха — сино-тибетский язык, на котором говорят около 500 человек[2], живущих в Бутане, а точнее в дзонгхагах Вангди-Пходранг и Тронгса[3].



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