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Hupa (native name: Na꞉tinixwe Mixine꞉wheʼ, lit. "language of the Hoopa Valley people") is an Athabaskan language (of Na-Dené stock) spoken along the lower course of the Trinity River in Northwestern California by the Hoopa Valley Hupa (Na꞉tinixwe) and Tsnungwe/South Fork Hupa (Tse:ningxwe) and, before European contact, by the Chilula and Whilkut peoples, to the west.

Hupa
Na꞉tinixwe Mixine꞉wheʼ
Native to	United States
Region	California (Hoopa Valley)
Ethnicity	2,000 Hupa (2007)
Native speakers	1 (2015)
Revival	L2 users: 30 (2007)
Language family	Dené–Yeniseian? Na-Dené Athabaskan–Eyak Athabaskan Pacific Coast Athabaskan Hupa
Language codes
ISO 639-2	hup
ISO 639-3	hup
Glottolog	hupa1239
ELP	Hupa
Hupa is classified as Critically Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Speakers

The 2000 US Census estimated the language to be spoken by 64 persons between the ages of 5 and 17, including 4 monolingual speakers. As of 2012, there were fewer than 10 individuals whose Hupa could be called fluent, at least one of whom (Verdena Parker) was a fully fluent bilingual.^{[citation needed]} Perhaps another 50 individuals of all ages have restricted control of traditional Hupa phonology, grammar and lexicon. Beyond this, many tribal members share a small vocabulary of words and phrases of Hupa origin.

Phonology

The consonants of Hupa in the standard orthography are listed below (with IPA notation in slashes):

Hupa consonants[1]

		Labial	Alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Uvular	Glottal
			central	lateral	plain	labial.	plain	labial.		plain	labial.
Nasal		m  /m/	n  /n/				ng  /ŋ/
Stop	plain	b  /p/	d  /t/		g, gy1  /kʲ/		(G  /k/)2		q  /q/	ʼ  /ʔ/
	aspirated		t  /tʰ/		k, ky1  /kʲʰ/		(K  /kʰ/)2
	ejective		tʼ  /tʼ/		kʼ, kyʼ1  /kʲʼ/		(Kʼ  /kʼ/)2		qʼ  /qʼ/
Affricate	plain		dz  /ts/		j  /tʃ/
	aspirated		ts  /tsʰ/			chw  /tʃʷʰ/
	ejective		tsʼ  /tsʼ/	tłʼ  /tɬʼ/	chʼ  /tʃʼ/	(chwʼ  /tʃʷʼ/)3
Fricative			s  /s/	ł  /ɬ/	(sh  /ʃ/)4		x  /x/	xw  /xʷ/		h  /h/	wh  /hʷ/
Approximant		w  /w/		l  /l/	y  /j/

Notes about the consonant system and how it is written:[2]

1. The palatal stops g, k, and kʼ are written gy, ky, and kyʼ before the letters a, o, and u.
2. The velar stops G, K, and Kʼ have a limited distribution; G and K are only found in diminutive words.
3. The sound chwʼ occurs mainly as a variant pronunciation of chw in some words.
4. The sound sh is rare and occurs mainly in exclamations or loanwords.

Hupa vowel phonemes[3]

	Front	Central	Back
Close-mid	ɪ ~ e		o
Open		a

Vowels may be lengthened.

Orthography

The Hupa alphabet is as follows:

Hupa alphabet[4]

Spelling	a	a꞉	b	ch	chʼ	chw	chwʼ	d	dz	e	e꞉	g	gy	h	i	j	k	kʼ	ky	kyʼ	l	ł	m	n	ng	o	o꞉	q	qʼ	s	sh	t	tʼ	tł	tłʼ	ts	tsʼ	u	w	wh	x	xw	y	ʼ
Phoneme	a	aː	p	tʃʰ	tʃʼ	tʃʷʰ	tʃʷʼ	t	ts	e	eː	k	kʲ	h	ɪ	tʃ	kʰ	kʼ	kʲʰ	kʲʼ	l	ɬ	m	n	ŋ	o	oː	q	qʼ	s	ʃ	tʰ	tʼ	tɬʰ	tɬʼ	tsʰ	tsʼ	u	w	hʷ	x	xʷ	j	ʔ

Morphology

Verb themes and classes

As with other Dene languages, the Hupa verb is based around a theme. Melissa Axelrod has defined a theme as "the underlying skeleton of the verb to which prefixes or strings of prefixes or suffixal elements are added in producing an utterance. The theme itself has a meaning and is the basic unit of the Athabaskan verbal lexicon." [5] In addition to a verb stem, a typical theme consists of a classifier, one or more conjunct prefixes, and one or more disjunct prefixes.[6]

According to Victor Golla (1970, 2001 and others), each Hupa theme falls into one of eight structural classes according to its potential for inflection, along the following three parameters: active vs. neuter, transitive vs. intransitive, and personal vs. impersonal. Golla (2001: 817)

1. Active themes are inflected for aspect-mode categories, while neuter themes are not. 2. Transitive themes are inflected for direct object, while intransitive themes are not. 3. Personal themes are inflected for subject, while impersonal themes are not.

Golla (2001: 818) presents examples of themes from each of the eight structural classes. Orthography has been changed to conform to the current accepted tribal orthography:

Active themes:

• Transitive

Personal O-ƚ-me꞉n 'fill O'

Impersonal no꞉=O-d-(n)-ƚ-tan' 'O gets used to something'

• Intransitive

Personal tsʼi-(w)-la꞉n/lan' 'play (at a rough sport)'

Impersonal (s)-daw 'melt away disappear'

Neuter themes:

• Transitive

Personal O-si-ƚ-ʼa꞉n 'have (a round object) lying'

Impersonal O-wi-l-chwe꞉n 'O has been made, created'

• Intransitive

Personal di-n-chʼa꞉t 'ache, be sick'

Impersonal kʼi-qots' 'there is a crackling sound'

Verb template

As with other Dene languages, the Hupa verb is composed of a verb stem and a set of prefixes. The prefixes can be divided into a conjunct prefix set and disjunct prefix set. The disjunct prefixes occur on the outer left edge of the verb. The conjunct prefixes occur after the disjunct prefixes, closer to the verb stem. The two types of prefixes can be distinguished by their different phonological behavior. The prefix complex may be subdivided into 10 positions, modeled in the Athabaskanist literature as a template, as follows:

11	10	9	8	7	6	5	4	3	2	1	0
adv	thematic material	pl/aug- thematic	3 subj	obj	thematic material	adv	distributive- thematic	mode- aspect	1/2 subj	classifier (voice/valency marker)	verb stem

[7]

Pronouns, pronominal inflection

Hupa verbs have pronominal (i.e., pronoun) prefixes that mark both subjects and objects. The prefixes can vary in certain modes, particularly the perfective mode (See e.g., Mode and Aspect for a discussion of modes in Navajo, a related Dene language). The prefixes vary according to person and number. The basic subject prefixes are listed in the table below:

Person/Number	Subject Prefixes		Object Prefixes
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
First (1)	-wh-	-di-	-wh-	-noh-
Second (2)	ni-	-oh-	ni-
Third animate (3)	-chʼi-		xo-
Third obviative (3)	yi-		-Ø-
Third indefinite (3)	kʼi-		-Ø-
Third impersonal (areal-situational)	-xo-		-Ø-
Reflexive	–		ʼa꞉di-
Reciprocal	–		n- łi

The subject prefixes occur in two different positions. The first and second subject prefixes (-wh- (or allomorph -e꞉ ), -di-, -ni-, -oh-) occur in position 2, directly before the classifier (voice/valency) prefixes. The animate, obviative, indefinite and "areal-situational" subject prefixes (chʼi-, yi-, kʼi- and xo-) are known as "deictic subject pronouns" and occur in position 8.

The direct object prefixes occur in position 7.

The Hupa free personal subject pronouns are as follows:

Person+Number	form
1sg	whe꞉
2sg	ning
3sg	xong, min (low animacy)
1pl	nehe
2pl	nohni
3pl	xong

Golla (2001:865-6) notes that the 3rd person free pronouns are very rarely used, with demonstrative pronouns being used in their place.

Demonstrative pronouns

-hay(i)  <  hay-i  'the one (who)'
-hay-de꞉  <  hay-de꞉-i  'the one here' (de꞉ 'here')
-hay-de꞉d  <  hay-de꞉-d-i  'this one here' (de꞉-di 'this here')
-hay-yo꞉w  <  hay-yo꞉w-i  'the one there (close)' (yo꞉wi 'there')
-hay-ye꞉w  <  hay-ye꞉w-i  'the one in the distance' (ye꞉wi 'yonder')

References

Bibliography

• Campbell, Amy (2007). "Hupa ditransitives and the syntactic status of R" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Dixon, Roland Burrage; Samuel Alfred Barrett; Washington Matthews; Bill Ray (1910). The phonology of the Hupa language. The University Press. Retrieved 24 August 2012.
• Goddard, Pliny Earle (1904). "Hupa Texts". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Goddard, Pliny Earle (1905). "The Morphology of the Hupa Language". Berkeley, The University press. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

• Goddard, Pliny Earle (1907). "The Phonology of the Hupa Language". University of California Publications. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Golla, Victor (1970). "Hupa Grammar" (PDF). University of California, Berkeley. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Golla, Victor (1996). "Hupa Language Dictionary Second Edition". Retrieved May 6, 2010.
• Golla, Victor (2011). "California Indian Languages". University of California Press. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Gordon, Matthew (2001). "Laryngeal Timing and Correspondence in Hupa" (PDF). UCLA Working Papers in Linguistics. 1.
• Gordon, Matthew. "The Phonetics and Phonology of Non-Modal Vowels: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Gordon, Matthew; Luna, Edmundo. "An Intergenerational Study of Hupa Stress" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Pycha, Anne. "Morpheme Strength Relationships in Hupa, and Beyond" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-07-08. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
• Sapir, Edward; Golla, Victor (2001). "Hupa Texts, with Notes and Lexicon. In _The Collected Works of Edward Sapir, Victor Golla & Sean O'Neill (eds.), volume XIV_, 19-1011. Mouton de Gruyter". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

External links

• Danny Ammon's Hupa Language Page
• Hupa language overview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages
• Hupa Language Dictionary and Texts
• Hupa basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
• OLAC resources in and about the Hupa language

На других языках

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- [en] Hupa language

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[fr] Hupa

Le hupa ou houpa est la langue parlée par les Hupas qui habitent le nord-ouest de la Californie. Cette langue fait partie du groupe des langues de la côte pacifique de la famille athapascane, qui appartient elle-même à la famille na-dené des langues des Amériques.

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[it] Lingua hupa

La lingua hupa o hoopa (endonimo: Na:tinixwe Mixine:whe) appartiene alla famiglia linguistica athabaska (della superfamiglia na-dené), parlata dal popolo hupa, lungo la parte inferiore del fiume Trinity nel nord-ovest della California, e, prima dei contatti cogli europei, anche dai chilula e dai whilkut.

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[ru] Хупа (язык)

Хупа (самоназвание Na:tinixwe Mixine:whe) — атабаскский язык, на котором говорит индейское племя хупа (натинихве) в низовьях реки Тринити на северо-западе Калифорнии.

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