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The Hokan /ˈhoʊkæn/ language family is a hypothetical grouping of a dozen small language families that were spoken mainly in California, Arizona and Baja California.

"Hokan" redirects here. For hōkan male geisha of Japan, see Taikomochi.
Hokan
(controversial)
Geographic
distribution		North America
Linguistic classificationProposed language family
Subdivisions
ISO 639-5hok
GlottologNone
Hokan families of California

Etymology


The name Hokan is loosely based on the word for "two" in the various Hokan languages: *xwak in Proto-Yuman, c-oocj (pronounced [koːkx]) in Seri, ha'k in Achumawi, etc.


History of the proposal


In the first half-century after the "Hokan hypothesis" was first proposed by Roland B. Dixon and Alfred L. Kroeber,[1][2] and further elaborated by Edward Sapir, little additional evidence was found that these families were related to each other. But since about 1950, increased efforts to document Hokan languages and to establish sound correspondences in proposed lexical resemblance sets have added weight to the Hokan hypothesis, leading to its acceptance by many specialists in the languages of California, Oregon, and Mesoamerica. However, some skepticism remains among scholars.[3]

The Yurumanguí language of Colombia was claimed to be Hokan by Rivet.[4] This claim has not been accepted by historical linguists. Terrence Kaufman wondered if Hokan might be related to Oto-Mangean. [5]

An automated computational analysis (ASJP 4) by Müller et al. (2013)[6] found lexical similarities among Seri, Yuman and Tequistlatecan. However, since the analysis was automatically generated, the grouping could be either due to mutual lexical borrowing or genetic inheritance.


Distribution


The geographic distribution of the Hokan languages suggests that they became separated around the Central Valley of California by the influx of later-arriving Penutian and other peoples; archaeological evidence for this is summarized in Chase-Dunn & Mann (1998). These languages are spoken by Native American communities around and east of Mount Shasta, others near Lake Tahoe, the Pomo on the California coast, and the Yuman peoples along the lower Colorado River. Some linguists also include Chumash, between San Francisco and Los Angeles, and other families, but the evidence is insubstantial, and most now restrict Hokan to some or all of the languages listed below.


Languages


The Hokan languages retained by Kaufman (1988) due to regular sound correspondences and common core vocabulary are as follows. (The data on which these conclusions were drawn have not been published or evaluated by anyone else.) Apart from Shasta–Palaihnihan and Yuman, all branches are single languages or shallow families.[7]

Marlett (2008) reevaluated the evidence and concluded that the evidence for Seri and Salinan has not been systematically or convincingly presented. The inclusion of the Tequistlatecan languages has also not received much support.[citation needed] The Chumash languages were once included, but that position has been almost universally abandoned.


Zhivlov (2013)


A lexicostatistical classification of the Hokan languages by Zhivlov (2013) is roughly presented as follows.[8]

Zhivlov (2013) does not consider Jicaquean (Tol) and Washo to be Hokan languages.


Vocabulary


Some Hokan lexical correspondences from Mary R. Haas (1963) are provided below.[9]

GLOSS PROTO-
SHASTA		 PROTO-
PALAIHNIHAN		 PROTO-
POMO		 Yana Karok Chimariko PROTO-
YUMA		 PROTO-
HOKAN
'ear'
*ísamakʼ
*ísamaK		*išamálmalʔgu-sam*išamárika
*išamákari		 *išamarukʼa
*išamákʼaru
'liver' *č-ímapasi
*iwapasi
imaváfiš-ši
*imačipasí		 *č-imapasi
*imačipasi
'navel' *ímaraw
alu (Achomawi)
lakʼi
ʔárup
-napu
*imalikwí
*imakwáli		*imarakʼwi
*imakʼwari
'neck (nape)' *ímapka
*iwapaKi
vúˑp
-kki

*amipúki		*imapaki
*amipaki
'nose'
*č-imari
*yaw̃ari
*iw̃ari


*ilaw̃a		*yamari
*imari
*irama
'tongue'
ipwá (Okwanuchu)
*ipali
__
*ipál
__

bawal-
ápri-

-pen

*ipáli

*ipari
*ipawari
*ipariwa

Similar forms for 'tongue' include:


Similarties with Uto-Aztecan


Shaul (2019) notes the following similarities between Proto-Hokan (based on Kaufman 2015[10]) and Proto-Uto-Aztecan.[11]

Gloss (for Proto-Hokan)Proto-HokanProto-Uto-Aztecan
louse/flea#ači*atë(N) ‘louse/nit’
paternal grandfather#apu*apu ‘father/parent/mother’
objective case#-i*i ‘objective case’
come#iyu, #iya*ya- ‘come’
wife#luwa, #lowa*lowa ‘vagina’
hand#man, #ma*man ~ *ma ‘hand’
give#ma ~ #mo*maka ‘give’
woman#marimaːla ‘mother’ (Yoemian)
know (through magic)#mata ~ #matu ~ #mati*mata ~ *mati ‘know’
be a woman#momo-momo- ‘woman’ (Hopi)
(not quite) dead#mu-*mukːV ‘die (singular)’
young woman#mus-*muts [~ *mos] ‘vagina’
child#ŋam-ŋyam ‘clan’ (Hopi)
pitch/sap#sala*saLa ‘pitch’

See also



References


  1. Dixon, Roland R.; Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913a). "Relationship of the Indian languages of California." Science, 37, 225
  2. Dixon, Roland R.; Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913b) "New linguistic families in California." American Anthropologist, 15, 647–655
  3. Kaufmann, Terrence (2009). "Hokan". In Brown, E. K.; Ogilvie, Sarah (eds.). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world (1st ed.). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. pp. 504–510. ISBN 9780080877754. OCLC 318247422.
  4. Paul Rivet, 1942
  5. Kaufmann, Terrence (1990). Tlapaneko-Sutiaba, OtoMangean, and Hokan: where Greenberg went wrong.
  6. Müller, André, Viveka Velupillai, Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Eric W. Holman, Sebastian Sauppe, Pamela Brown, Harald Hammarström, Oleg Belyaev, Johann-Mattis List, Dik Bakker, Dmitri Egorov, Matthias Urban, Robert Mailhammer, Matthew S. Dryer, Evgenia Korovina, David Beck, Helen Geyer, Pattie Epps, Anthony Grant, and Pilar Valenzuela. 2013. ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity: Version 4 (October 2013).
  7. Golla (2011) California Indian Languages
  8. Zhivlov, Mikhail. 2013. The Hokan family and lexicostatistics. Comparative-Historical Linguistics of the XXIst Century: Issues and Perspectives. Institute for Oriental and Classical Studies, Russian State University for the Humanities. Moscow, March 20-22, 2013. (Accessed 2021-10-07)
  9. Haas, Mary R. (1963): "Shasta and Proto-hokan." Language, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1963), pp. 40-59. doi:10.2307/410761
  10. Kaufman, Terrence. 2015. A research program for reconstructing proto-Hokan: first gropings. Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica.
  11. Shaul, David (2019). Esselen studies: language, culture, and prehistory. Muenchen: Lincom Europa. ISBN 978-3-86288-986-0. OCLC 1132875180.

Sources





На других языках

- [en] Hokan languages

[it] Lingue hokan

Col termine di lingue hokan (o Hoka) viene identificata un'ipotetica famiglia linguistica la cui esistenza è sostenuta da alcuni linguisti americani ma che non trova la generale approvazione della comunità scientifica.

[ru] Хоканские языки

Хоканские языки (хока) — гипотетическое объединение десятка малых языков, распространённых в Калифорнии и Мексике. За почти 100 лет существования данная гипотеза почти не получила надёжных свидетельств. Хотя некоторые языки, включаемые в данную семью, действительно могут оказаться родственными, особенно в северной Калифорнии, лишь немногие лингвисты в настоящее время считают данную гипотезу достоверной.


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