lingvo.wikisort.org - Language

The West Germanic languages constitute the largest of the three branches of the Germanic family of languages (the others being the North Germanic and the extinct East Germanic languages). The West Germanic branch is classically subdivided into three branches: Ingvaeonic, which includes English and Frisian, Istvaeonic, which includes Dutch and its close relatives, and Irminonic, which includes German and its close relatives and variants.

West Germanic (European)
Geographic distribution	Originally between the Rhine, Alps, Elbe, and North Sea; today worldwide
Linguistic classification	Indo-European Germanic West Germanic (European)
Subdivisions	North Sea Germanic – English, Scots, Yola, West, North and Saterland Frisian, Low German Weser-Rhine Germanic – High German (Central German), Dutch, Luxembourgish, Hunsrik, Afrikaans Elbe Germanic – High German (Upper German), Yiddish
ISO 639-5	gmw
Linguasphere	52-AB & 52-AC
Glottolog	west2793
Extent of Germanic languages in present day Europe North Germanic languages   Icelandic   Faroese   Norwegian   Swedish   Danish West Germanic languages   Scots   English   West, North and Saterland Frisian   Dutch   Low German   High German Dots indicate areas where multilingualism is common.

English is by far the most-spoken West Germanic language, with more than 1 billion speakers worldwide. Within Europe, the three most prevalent West Germanic languages are English, German, and Dutch. Frisian, spoken by about 450,000 people, constitutes a fourth distinct variety of West Germanic. The language family also includes Afrikaans, Yiddish, Luxembourgish, and Scots, which are closely related to Dutch, German and English respectively. Additionally, several creoles, patois, and pidgins are based on Dutch, English, or German.

History

Origins and characteristics

The Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups: West, East and North Germanic.[1] In some cases, their exact relation was difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, so that some individual varieties have been difficult to classify. This is especially true for the unattested Jutish language; today, most scholars classify Jutish as a West Germanic variety with several features of North Germanic.[2]

Until the late 20th century, some scholars claimed that all Germanic languages remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, others hold that speakers of West Germanic dialects like Old Frankish and speakers of Gothic were already unable to communicate fluently by around the 3rd century AD. As a result of the substantial progress in the study of Proto-West Germanic in the early 21st century, there is a growing consensus that East and West Germanic indeed have been mutually unintelligible at that time,[3] whereas West and North Germanic remained partially intelligible.[4]

Dialects with the features assigned to the western group formed from Proto-Germanic in the late Jastorf culture (ca. 1st century BC). The West Germanic group is characterized by a number of phonological, morphological and lexical innovations or archaisms not found in North and East Germanic. Examples of West Germanic phonological particularities are:[5]

• The delabialization of all labiovelar consonants except word-initially.[6]
• Change of *-zw- and *- đw- to *-ww- e.g. *izwiz > *iwwiz ‘you’ dat.pl.; *feđwōr > *fewwōr ‘four’.[7]
• [ð], the fricative allophone of /d/, becomes [d] in all positions.[8] (The two other fricatives [β] and [ɣ] are retained.). This must have occurred after *-zw- and *- đw- have become *-ww-.[9]
• Replacement of the second-person singular preterite ending -t with -ī.[10] Some scholars, including Karl-Heinz Mottausch and Wolfram Euler now explain this ending as a relict of the Indo-European aorist tense.
• Loss of word-final /z/.[11][12][13] Only Old High German preserves it at all (as /r/) and only in single-syllable words. Following the later loss of word-final /a/ and /aN/, this made the nominative and accusative of many nouns identical.
• Loss of final *-a (including from PGmc. *-an#) in polysyllables: e.g. acc. sg. OHG horn vs. ORu. horna ‘horn’; this change must have occurred after the loss of word-final /z/.[9]
• West Germanic gemination: lengthening of all consonants except /r/ before /j/.;[14][15] this change must have occurred after the loss of final *-a.[9]
• Change of Proto-Germanic *e to i before i and j.[16]

A relative chronology of about 20 sound changes from Proto-Northwest Germanic to Proto-West Germanic (some of them only regional) has been published by Don Ringe in 2014.[17]

A phonological archaism of West Germanic is the preservation of grammatischer Wechsel in most verbs, particularly in Old High German.[18] This implies the same for West Germanic,[19] whereas in East and North Germanic many of these alternations (in Gothic almost all of them) had been levelled out analogically by the time of the earliest texts.

West Germanic (African)
Geographic distribution	Southern Africa
Linguistic classification	Indo-European Germanic West Germanic Weser-Rhine Germanic Low Franconian Dutch (Hollandic dialect) West Germanic (African)
Early forms	Frankish Old Dutch Middle Dutch Modern Dutch
Subdivisions	Afrikaans
ISO 639-5	gmw
Linguasphere	52-AB & 52-AC
Glottolog	west2793
Extent of Germanic languages in present day Africa West Germanic languages   Afrikaans

A common morphological innovation of the West Germanic languages is the development of a gerund.[20]

Common morphological archaisms of West Germanic include:

• The preservation of an instrumental case,[21]
• the preservation of the athematic verbs[22] (e.g. Anglo-Saxon dō(m), Old Saxon dōm, OHG. tōm "I do"[23]),
• the preservation of some traces^[which?] of the aorist (in Old English and Old High German, but neither in Gothic nor in North Germanic).[24][25]

Furthermore, the West Germanic languages share many lexemes not existing in North Germanic and/or East Germanic – archaisms[26] as well as common neologisms.[27][28]

Existence of West Germanic proto-language

Up until the 1990s, some scholars doubted that there was once a Proto-West-Germanic proto-language which was ancestral only to later West Germanic languages.[29] Today, there is a growing consensus on what Don Ringe stated in 2012, that "these [phonological and morphological] changes amount to a massive evidence for a valid West Germanic clade".[30]

After East Germanic broke off (an event usually dated to the 2nd or 1st century BC), the remaining Germanic languages, the Northwest Germanic languages, divided into four main dialects:[31]^{[obsolete source]} North Germanic, and the three groups conventionally called "West Germanic", namely

1. North Sea Germanic, ancestral to Anglo-Frisian and Old Saxon
2. Weser-Rhine Germanic, ancestral to Old Dutch and present as a substrate or superstrate in some of the Central Franconian and Rhine Franconian dialects of Old High German
3. Elbe Germanic, ancestral to the Upper German and most Central German dialects of Old High German, and the extinct Langobardic language.

Although there is quite a bit of knowledge about North Sea Germanic or Anglo-Frisian (because of the characteristic features of its daughter languages, Anglo-Saxon/Old English and Old Frisian), linguists know almost nothing about "Weser-Rhine Germanic" and "Elbe Germanic". In fact, both terms were coined in the 1940s to refer to groups of archaeological findings, rather than linguistic features. Only later were the terms applied to hypothetical dialectal differences within both regions. Even today, the very small number of Migration Period runic inscriptions from the area, many of them illegible, unclear or consisting only of one word, often a name, is insufficient to identify linguistic features specific to the two supposed dialect groups.

Evidence that East Germanic split off before the split between North and West Germanic comes from a number of linguistic innovations common to North and West Germanic,[5] including:

• The lowering of Proto-Germanic ē (/ɛː/, also written ǣ) to ā.[32]
• The development of umlaut.
• The rhotacism of /z/ to /r/.
• The development of the demonstrative pronoun ancestral to English this.

Under that view, the properties that the West Germanic languages have in common separate from the North Germanic languages are not necessarily inherited from a "Proto-West-Germanic" language but may have spread by language contact among the Germanic languages spoken in Central Europe, not reaching those spoken in Scandinavia or reaching them much later. Rhotacism, for example, was largely complete in West Germanic while North Germanic runic inscriptions still clearly distinguished the two phonemes. There is also evidence that the lowering of ē to ā occurred first in West Germanic and spread to North Germanic later since word-final ē was lowered before it was shortened in West Germanic, but in North Germanic the shortening occurred first, resulting in e that later merged with i. However, there are also a number of common archaisms in West Germanic shared by neither Old Norse nor Gothic. Some authors who support the concept of a West Germanic proto-language claim that, not only shared innovations can require the existence of a linguistic clade, but also that there are archaisms that cannot be explained simply as retentions later lost in the North or East, because this assumption can produce contradictions with attested features of the other branches.

The debate on the existence of a Proto-West-Germanic clade was recently (2006) summarized:

That North Germanic is... a unitary subgroup [of Proto-Germanic] is completely obvious, as all of its dialects shared a long series of innovations, some of them very striking. That the same is true of West Germanic has been denied, but I will argue in vol. ii that all the West Germanic languages share several highly unusual innovations that virtually force us to posit a West Germanic clade. On the other hand, the internal subgrouping of both North Germanic and West Germanic is very messy, and it seems clear that each of those subfamilies diversified into a network of dialects that remained in contact for a considerable period of time (in some cases right up to the present).[33]

The reconstruction of Proto-West-Germanic

Several scholars have published reconstructions of Proto-West-Germanic morphological paradigms[34] and many authors have reconstructed individual Proto-West-Germanic morphological forms or lexemes. The first comprehensive reconstruction of the Proto-West-Germanic language was published in 2013 by Wolfram Euler,[35] followed in 2014 by the study of Don Ringe and Ann Taylor.[36]

Dating Early West Germanic

If indeed Proto-West-Germanic existed, it must have been between the 2nd and 7th centuries. Until the late 2nd century AD, the language of runic inscriptions found in Scandinavia and in Northern Germany were so similar that Proto-North-Germanic and the Western dialects in the south were still part of one language ("Proto-Northwest-Germanic"). After that, the split into West and North Germanic occurred. By the 4th and 5th centuries the great migration set in. By the end of the 6th century, the area in which West Germanic languages were spoken, at least by the upper classes, had tripled compared to the year 400. This caused an increasing disintegration of the West Germanic language and finally the formation of the daughter languages.[37]

It has been argued that, judging by their nearly identical syntax, the West Germanic dialects were closely enough related to have been mutually intelligible up to the 7th century.[38] Over the course of this period, the dialects diverged successively. The High German consonant shift that occurred mostly during the 7th century AD in what is now southern Germany, Austria, and Switzerland can be considered the end of the linguistic unity among the West Germanic dialects, although its effects on their own should not be overestimated. Bordering dialects very probably continued to be mutually intelligible even beyond the boundaries of the consonant shift.

Middle Ages

During the Early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Old and Middle English on one hand, and by the High German consonant shift on the continent on the other.

The High German consonant shift distinguished the High German languages from the other West Germanic languages. By early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from Highest Alemannic in the South (the Walliser dialect being the southernmost surviving German dialect) to Northern Low Saxon in the North. Although both extremes are considered German, they are not mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties have completed the second sound shift, whereas the northern dialects remained unaffected by the consonant shift.

Of modern German varieties, Low German is the one that most resembles modern English. The district of Angeln (or Anglia), from which the name English derives, is in the extreme northern part of Germany between the Danish border and the Baltic coast. The area of the Saxons (parts of today's Schleswig-Holstein and Lower Saxony) lay south of Anglia. The Angles and Saxons, two Germanic tribes, in combination with a number of other peoples from northern Germany and the Jutland Peninsula, particularly the Jutes, settled in Britain following the end of Roman rule in the island. Once in Britain, these Germanic peoples eventually developed a shared cultural and linguistic identity as Anglo-Saxons; the extent of the linguistic influence of the native Romano-British population on the incomers is debatable.

Family tree

Note that divisions between subfamilies of continental Germanic languages are rarely precisely defined; most form dialect continua, with adjacent dialects being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not.

• North Sea Germanic / Ingvaeonic languages
  • Anglo-Frisian languages
    • English Languages/Anglic
      • English
      • Scots
      • Yola
      • Fingalian (extinct)
    • Frisian languages
      • West Frisian
      • East Frisian
        • Saterland Frisian
      • North Frisian
  • Low German / Low Saxon
    • Northern Low Saxon
    • Schleswig dialects
    • Holstein dialects
    • Westphalian
    • Eastphalian
    • Brandenburg dialects
    • Central Pomeranian (moribund)
    • East Pomeranian (moribund)
    • Low Prussian (moribund)
    • Dutch Low Saxon
• Weser-Rhine Germanic / Istvaeonic languages / Netherlandic / Low Frankish
  • Dutch
    • Afrikaans
    • West Flemish
    • East Flemish
    • Zeelandic
    • Central Dutch
      • Hollandic
      • Zuid-Gelders
    • Brabantine
    • Clevian/Meuse-Rhenish
  • Limburgian
• Elbe Germanic / Irminonic languages / High German
  • German
    • Alemannic, including Swiss German and Alsatian
    • Swabian
    • Bavarian
    • East Franconian
    • South Franconian
    • Rhine Franconian, including the dialects of Hessen, Pennsylvania German, and most of those from Lorraine
    • Ripuarian
    • Thuringian
    • Upper Saxon German
    • Silesian (moribund)
    • High Prussian (moribund)
    • Lombardic AKA Langobardic (extinct, unless Cimbrian and Mocheno are in fact Langobardic remnants.)
  • Luxembourgish
  • Pennsylvania German language
  • Yiddish (a language based on Eastern-Central dialects of late Middle High German/Early New High German)

Comparison of phonological and morphological features

This section does not cite any sources. (July 2019)

The following table shows a list of various linguistic features and their extent among the West Germanic languages, organized roughly from northwest to southeast. Some may only appear in the older languages but are no longer apparent in the modern languages.

	Old English	Old Frisian	Old Saxon	Old Dutch	Old Central German	Old Upper German
Palatalisation of velars	Yes	Yes	Partial	No	No	No
Unrounding of front rounded vowels	ø but not y	Yes	No	Southwestern	No	No
Loss of intervocalic *-h-	Yes	Yes	Developing	Yes	Developing	No
Class II weak verb ending *-(ō)ja-	Yes	Yes	Sometimes	No	No	No
Merging of plural forms of verbs	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No
Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law	Yes	Yes	Yes	Rare	No	No
Loss of the reflexive pronoun	Yes	Yes	Most dialects	Most dialects	No	No
Loss of final *-z in single-syllable words	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No
Reduction of weak class III to four relics	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No
Monophthongization of *ai, *au	Yes	Yes	Yes	Usually	Partial	Partial
Diphthongization of *ē, *ō	No	No	Rare	Yes	Yes	Yes
Final-obstruent devoicing	No	No	No	Yes	Developing	No
Loss of initial *h- before consonant	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	Developing
Loss of initial *w- before consonant	No	No	No	No	Most dialects	Yes
High German consonant shift	No	No	No	No	Partial	Yes

Phonology

The original vowel system of West Germanic was similar to that of Proto-Germanic; note however the lowering of the long front vowels.

Monophthong phonemes of West Germanic

	Front		Central		Back
	unrounded		unrounded		rounded
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close	i	iː			u	uː
Mid	e	eː			o	oː
Open		æ:	a	aː

The consonant system was also essentially the same as that of Proto-Germanic. Note, however, the particular changes described above, as well as West Germanic gemination.

Morphology

Nouns

The noun paradigms of Proto-West Germanic have been reconstructed as follows:[44]

Case	Nouns in -a- (m.) *dagă (day)		Nouns in -ja- *harjă (army)		Nouns in -ija- *hirdijă (herder)		Nouns in -a- (n.) *joką (yoke)		Nouns in -ō- *gebu (gift)		Nouns in -i- *gasti (guest)		Nouns in -u- *sunu (son)		Nouns in -u- (n.) *fehu (cattle)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*dagă	*dagō, -ōs	*harjă	*harjō, -ōs	*hirdijă	*hirdijō, -ijōs	*joką	*joku	*gebu	*gebō	*gasti	*gastī	*sunu	*suniwi, -ō	*fehu	(?)
Vocative	*dag		*hari		*hirdī
Accusative	*dagą	*dagą̄	*harją	*harją̄	*hirdiją	*hirdiją̄			*gebā	*gebā	*gastį	*gastį̄	*sunų	*sunų̄
Genitive	*dagas	*dagō	*harjas	*harjō	*hirdijas	*hirdijō	*jokas	*jokō	*gebā	*gebō	*gastī	*gastijō	*sunō	*suniwō	*fehō
Dative	*dagē	*dagum	*harjē	*harjum	*hirdijē	*hirdijum	*jokē	*jokum	*gebē	*gebōm		*gastim	*suniwi, -ō	*sunum	*fehiwi, -ō
Instrumental	*dagu		*harju		*hirdiju		*joku		*gebu				*sunu		*fehu

West Germanic vocabulary

The following table compares a number of Frisian, English, Scotch, Yola, Dutch, Limburgish, German and Afrikaans words with common West Germanic (or older) origin. The grammatical gender of each term is noted as masculine (m.), feminine (f.), or neuter (n.) where relevant.

West Frisian	English	Scots	Yola	Dutch	Limburgish	German	Afrikaans	Old English	Old High German	Proto-West-Germanic[45]	Proto-Germanic
kaam	comb	kaim	khime / rack	kam m.	kâmp	Kamm m.	kam	camb m.	camb m.	kąbă [see inscription of Erfurt-Frienstedt], *kambă m.	*kambaz m.
dei	day	day	dei	dag m.	daag	Tag m.	dag	dæġ m.	tag m.	*dagă m.	*dagaz m.
rein	rain	rain	rhyne	regen m.	rengel, raege	Regen m.	reën	reġn m.	regan m.	*regnă m.	*regnaz m.
wei	way	wey	wei / wye	weg m.	weeg	Weg m.	weg	weġ m.	weg m.	*wegă m.	*wegaz m.
neil	nail	nail	niel	nagel m.	nieëgel	Nagel m.	nael	næġel m.	nagal m.	*naglă m.	*naglaz m.
tsiis	cheese	cheese	cheese	kaas m.	kieës	Käse m.	kaas	ċēse, ċīese m.	chāsi, kāsi m.	*kāsī m.	*kāsijaz m. (late Proto-Germanic, from Latin cāseus)
tsjerke	church	kirk	chourch	kerk f.	kêrk	Kirche f.	kerk	ċiriċe f.	chirihha, *kirihha f.	*kirikā f.	*kirikǭ f. (from Ancient Greek kuriakón "belonging to the lord")
sibbe	sibling[note 1]	sib	sibbe (dated) / meany	sibbe f.	-	Sippe f.	-	sibb f. "kinship, peace"	sippa f., Old Saxon: sibbia	sibbju, sibbjā f.	*sibjō f. "relationship, kinship, friendship"
kaai f.	key	key	kei / kie	sleutel m.	slueëtel	Schlüssel m.	sleutel	cǣġ(e), cǣga f. "key, solution, experiment"	sluzzil m.	*slutilă m., *kēgă f.	*slutilaz m. "key"; *kēgaz, *kēguz f. "stake, post, pole"
ha west	have been	hae(s)/hiv been	ha bin	ben geweest	bin geweis(t)	bin gewesen	was gewees
twa skiep	two sheep	twa sheep	twye zheep	twee schapen n.	twieë schäöp	zwei Schafe n.	twee skape	twā sċēap n.	zwei scāfa n.	*twai skēpu n.	*twai(?) skēpō n.
hawwe	have	hae	ha	hebben	hebbe, höbbe	haben	het	habban, hafian	habēn	*habbjană	*habjaną
ús	us	us	ouse	ons	os	uns	ons	ūs	uns	*uns	*uns
brea	bread	breid	breed	brood n.	mik, broeëd	Brot n.	brood	brēad n. "fragment, bit, morsel, crumb" also "bread"	brōt n.	*braudă m.	*braudą n. "cooked food, leavened bread"
hier	hair	hair	haar	haar n.	haor	Haar n.	haar	hēr, hǣr n.	hār n.	*hǣră n.	*hērą n.
ear	ear	lug	lug	oor n.	oeër	Ohr n.	oor	ēare n. < pre-English *ǣora	ōra n.	*aura < *auza n.	*auzǭ, *ausōn n.
doar	door	door	dher	deur f.	dueër	Tür f.	deur	duru f.	turi f.	*duru f.	*durz f.
grien	green	green	green	groen	greun	grün	groen	grēne	gruoni	*grōnĭ	*grōniz
swiet	sweet	sweet	sweet	zoet	zeut	süß	soet	swēte	s(w)uozi (< *swōti)	*swōtŭ	*swōtuz
troch	through	throu	draugh	door	doeër	durch	deur	þurh	duruh		*þurhw
wiet	wet	weet	weate	nat	naat	nass	nat	wǣt	naz (< *nat)	*wǣtă / *nată	*wētaz / *nataz
each	eye	ee	ei / iee	oog n.	oug	Auge n.	oog	ēage n. < pre-English *ǣoga	ouga n.	*auga n.	*augō n.
dream	dream	dream	dreem	droom m.	draum	Traum m.	droom	drēam m. "joy, pleasure, ecstasy, music, song"	troum m.	*draumă m.	*draumaz (< *draugmaz) m.
stien	stone	stane	sthoan	steen m.	stein	Stein m.	steen	stān m.	stein m.	*staină m.	*stainaz m.
bed	bed	bed	bed	bed n.	bed	Bett n.	bed	bedd n.	betti n.	*baddjă n.	*badją n.

Other words, with a variety of origins:

West Frisian	English	Scots	Dutch	Limburgish	German	Afrikaans	Old English	Old High German	Proto-West-Germanic[45]	Proto-Germanic
tegearre	together	thegither	samen tezamen	same	zusammen	saam tesame	tōgædere samen tōsamne	saman zisamane		*tōgadur *samana
hynder	horse	pony	paard n. ros n. (dated)	perd ros	Pferd n. / Ross n.	perd	hors n. eoh m.	(h)ros n. / pfarifrit n. / ehu- (in compositions)	*hrussă n. / *ehu m.	*hrussą n., *ehwaz m.

Note that some of the shown similarities of Frisian and English vis-à-vis Dutch and German are secondary and not due to a closer relationship between them. For example, the plural of the word for "sheep" was originally unchanged in all four languages and still is in some Dutch dialects and a great deal of German dialects. Many other similarities, however, are indeed old inheritances.

Notes

References

Bibliography

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• Ringe, Donald R. (2012): Cladistic Methodology and West Germanic. Yale Linguistics.
• Ringe, Donald R. and Taylor, Ann (2014). The Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II, 632p. ISBN 978-0199207848. Oxford.
• Robinson, Orrin W. (1992). Old English and Its Closest Relatives. A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages. Stanford University Press.
• Seebold, Elmar (1998). "Die Sprache(n) der Germanen in der Zeit der Völkerwanderung" (The Language(s) of the Germanic Peoples during the Migration Period), in E. Koller & H. Laitenberger, Suevos – Schwaben. Das Königreich der Sueben auf der Iberischen Halbinsel (411–585). Tübingen, 11–20.
• Seebold, Elmar (2006). "Westgermanische Sprachen" (West Germanic Languages), in Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde 33, 530–536.
• Stifter, David (2009). "The Proto-Germanic shift *ā > ō and early Germanic linguistic contacts", in Historische Sprachforschung 122, 268–283.
• Stiles, Patrick V. (1985-1986). The fate of the numeral “4” in Germanic. Nowele 6 pp. 81–104, 7 pp. 3–27, 8 pp. 3–25.
• Stiles, Patrick V. (1995). Remarks on the “Anglo-Frisian” thesis, in „Friesische Studien I”. Odense, 177–220.
• Stiles, Patrick V. (2004). Place-adverbs and the development of Proto-Germanic long *ē1 in early West Germanic. In Irma Hyvärinen et al. (Hg.), Etymologie, Entlehnungen und Entwicklungen. Mémoires de la Soc. Néophil. de Helsinki 63. Helsinki. 385–396.
• Stiles, Patrick V. (2013). The Pan-West Germanic Isoglosses and the Subrelationships of West Germanic to Other Branches. In Unity and Diversity in West Germanic, I. Special issue of NOWELE 66:1 (2013), Nielsen, Hans Frede and Patrick V. Stiles (eds.), 5 ff.
• Voyles, Joseph B. (1992). Early Germanic Grammar: pre-, proto-, and post-Germanic Language. San Diego: Academic Press

External links

• Germanic languages at Curlie

На других языках

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- [en] West Germanic languages

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[fr] Langues germaniques occidentales

Les langues germaniques occidentales (ou rameau westique) forment la plus grande des trois branches de la famille des langues germaniques, incluant notamment l'allemand, l'anglais et le néerlandais, mais également l’afrikaans, les langues frisonnes et le yiddish.

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[it] Lingue germaniche occidentali

Le lingue germaniche occidentali sono una delle tre branche, insieme alle lingue germaniche orientali ed alle lingue germaniche settentrionali, nelle quali sono suddivise le lingue germaniche. Tra le tre branche, quella del gruppo occidentale è la più ampia e comprende lingue quali l'inglese, il tedesco, l'olandese, il frisone, l'afrikaans e lo yiddish.

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