lingvo.wikisort.org - Language
The Tonkawa language was spoken in Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico by the Tonkawa people. A language isolate, with no known related languages,[1] Tonkawa has not had L1 (first language) speakers since the mid 1900s.[2] Most Tonkawa people now only speak English.[citation needed]
| Tonkawa | |
|---|---|
| Native to | United States |
| Region | Western Oklahoma, South-central Texas and into New Mexico |
| Ethnicity | Tonkawa |
| Extinct | ca. 1940 |
Language family | Language isolate |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | tqw |
| Glottolog | tonk1249 |
 Pre-contact distribution of the Tonkawa language | |
Phonology
Vowels
Tonkawa has 10 vowels:
| Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| short | long | short | long | short | long | |
| Close | i | iː | u | uː | ||
| Mid | e | eː | o | oː | ||
| Open | a | aː | ||||
- Each vowel is distinguished by the quality of sound and the length of the vowel.
- The vowels occur in five pairs that have differing vowel lengths (i.e. short vowels vs. long vowels).
- In the front and the mid back vowel pairs, the short vowels are phonetically lower than their long counterparts: /i/ → [ɪ], /e/ → [ɛ], /o/ → [ɔ].
- The low vowels /a, aː/ vary between central and back articulations: [a~ɑ, aː~ɑː].
- Vowels that are followed by j and w are slightly raised in their position of articulation
Consonants
Tonkawa has 15 consonants:
| Bilabial | Coronal | Dorsal | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | labial | ||||
| Nasal | m | n | |||
| Plosive | p | t | k | kʷ | ʔ |
| Affricate | t͡s | ||||
| Fricative | s | x | xʷ | h | |
| Approximant | l | j | w | ||
- The affricate /ts/ and fricative /s/ vary freely between dental and postalveolar articulations, i.e. [ts~tʃ] and [s~ʃ]. There is a tendency for [ʃ] to occur at the end of words (but no tendency for [tʃ]).
- The other coronals /t, n, l/ are consistently dental.
- The dorsal obstruents are produced with a palatal place of articulation before front vowels /i, iː, e, eː/, otherwise they are velar:
- /k, kʷ, x, xʷ/ → [c, cʷ, ç, çʷ]
- The dorsal approximants /j, w/ are consistently palatal and labiovelar respectively.
Consonant clusters
There are two environments in which consonant clusters occur in Tonkawa:
- when a consonant is repeated
- when the cluster is within the syllable
Repeated or identical consonants are treated as one unit. However, the condition that causes this repetition has not been fully analyzed.
- Example: sʔa-ko 'he scrapes it' versus mʔe-t-no 'lightning strikes him'
There are cases where the glottal stop is not used in the cluster or combination
There are certain consonants that can either begin or end in a cluster. However, if the cluster begins the syllable, there can be no intervening vowel.
- Initial Cluster Consonants: kʷ, m, n, s, x
- Final Cluster Consonants: ʔ
Phonological processes and morphophonemics
Initial stem syllables that begin with h-
- the h- is dropped when a prefix is added
- if the syllable is C + V, then the vowel is lengthened and given the quality of the stem vowel.
- if the syllable ends in a consonant, then the initial stem forms a new syllable with the final consonant of the prefix.
Final stem syllables
- Forms: C V w or C V y
- The form changes to C oː if followed by a suffix that starts with a consonant
- If a long vowel occurs the suffixes change from (-we/-wesʔ/aːdew) to (-oː or -o/oːsʔ/-aːdo)
An interesting feature of Tonkawan phonology is that the vowels in even-numbered syllables are reduced. That is, long vowels are shortened, while short vowels disappear. Analyses of this were given by Kisseberth (1970), Phelps (1973, 1975) and Noske (1993).
Syllable structure
The Tonkawa language is a syllabic language that bases its word and sentence prosody on even stressed syllables.
- Disyllabic words are when the stress is placed on the final syllable.
- Polysyllabic words are when the stress is moved to the next to last syllable, the penult.
There are five types of syllable arrangements: (CL consonant, CC: consonant cluster, V: vowel)
- C + V → ka-la 'mouth'
- C + V + C → tan-kol 'back of head'
- CC + V → sʔa-ko 'he scrapes it'
- CC + V + C → mʔe-t-no 'lightning strikes him'
- C + V + ʔs or sʔ/ lʔ/ jʔ → jam-xoʔs 'I paint his face'
Morphology
The morphemes in Tonkawa can be divided as follows:
I. Themes
- Free – the stem can stand alone
- Bound – the stem must have a suffix or prefix attached; it cannot stand alone
In Tonkawa the theme is composed of morphologic units. The basic unit is the stem. The stem is composed of two elements (the consonant and vowel) and modified by affixes. The theme, or stem, is functional, which means it changes as more affixation is added. This leads to the fusion of the stem and affix where it becomes difficult to isolate the word into its smaller units.
II. Affixes
- Transformative – the affix changes the meaning and/or function of the word
- Verbal – the affix changes a certain aspect of the verb
- Noun and Pronoun – the affix changes a certain aspect of the noun or pronoun
III. Enclitics
Grammar
In English, pronouns, nouns, verbs, etc., are individual words; Tonkawa forms the parts of speech differently, and the most important grammatical function is affixation. This process shows the subjects, objects, and pronouns of words and/or verbs. Within affixations, the suffix has more importance than the prefix.
The differentiation between subject and object is shown in the suffix. While the word order tends to be subject-object-verb (SOV), compounding words is very common in Tonkawa. Reduplication is very common in Tonkawa and affects only the verb themes. Usually, only one syllable undergoes reduplication, and it notes a repeated action, vigorous action, or a plural subject.
Nouns
Nouns function as free themes, or stems, in Tonkawa. There is a limit of only two or three affixes that can compound with a noun. However, there are cases of a bound theme occurring in noun compounds, which occurs with the suffix -an is added. In English, pronouns and nouns are usually grouped together, but because pronouns in Tonkawa are bound themes, they will be discussed with the verb section.
| Case | Indefinite (singular/plural) | Definite (singular/plural) |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -la/ -ka | -ʔaːla/ -ʔaːka |
| Accusative | -lak/ -kak | -ʔaːlak/ -ʔaːkak |
| Genitive | -ʔan | -ʔaːlʔan |
| Dative (Arrival) | -ʔaːyik | |
| Dative (Approach) | -ʔaːwʔan | |
| Instrumental | -es / -kas | -aːlas/ -ʔaːkay |
| Conjunctive | -ʔen | -ʔaːlʔen |
| Vocative | (bare stem) | (bare stem) |
Verbs
Verbs are bound morphemes that have a limit of only two themes, the second theme being the modifying theme and usually serving as an adverbial theme. However, if the suffix -ʔe/-wa is added the verb functions as a free theme.
Pronouns
Pronouns are not used except for emphasis on the subject and are affixated as prefixes. Person and number are usually indicated by the affixation of the verb. Most pronouns are bound themes, especially the demonstrative pronouns.
| singular | plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | saː- me |
kew-saː- we/us |
| 2nd person | naː- you |
we-naː- you pl./them |
| 3rd person | ʔa- him/her |
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative adverbs can be formed by adding -ca 'place', -l 'direction', -c 'manner' to the demonstrative pronouns below.
- Example: waː 'that one aforementioned' + ca 'place = 'waː-ca 'that place aforementioned'
Interrogative pronouns can be formed by adding the prefix he- to the demonstrative pronouns as well by using the same format for the demonstrative adverbs.
- Example: he 'interrogative' + teː 'this' + l 'direction' = he-teː-l 'where'
Indefinite pronouns can also be formed with affixation. (Interrogative + ʔax)
- Example: hecuː 'what' + ʔax = hecuː-ʔax 'anything, something, anyone, someone'
| Tonkawa Demonstrative | English Demonstrative |
|---|---|
| waː- | the one aforementioned |
| teː- | this |
| heʔe/ heʔeː/ heː | that |
| weː | (that) one yonder |
Also within the verbal-prefix category are the causatives ya- and nec-, where ya- is the older form.
Verb suffixes
Verb suffixes are important in Tonkawa because they usually indicate the tense, negativity, and manner (outside of what is conveyed in the aforementioned prefixes) of the action performed.
| Suffix | Function | Placement |
|---|---|---|
| -ape/-ap | Negation suffix | follows the theme but follows a second-person plural object pronoun, if present |
| -nesʔe/ -nesʔ | Dual subject suffix | follows the negation suffix, future tense suffix, and second-person plural object pronoun |
| -wesʔe/ -weʔ | Plural subject suffix | same position as the dual subject; occurs in the first and second persons in all modes |
| -aːtew/ -aːto | Future tense suffix | after the stem/theme (present tense: -ʔe or just -ʔ; past tense: -ʔej or -ʔeːje) |
| -no/ -n | Continuative suffix | after the stem |
| -we/ -oː/ -o | declarative mode suffix | after the present or past tense |
| -kʷa | Exclamatory suffix | after the 3rd person singular or at the end of the word |
| -w | Imperative mode | only in the singular, dual, or second-person plural |
Enclitics
Enclitics are bound morphemes that are suffixed to verbs, nouns, and demonstratives that end with -k. Enclitics often express modal concepts in Tonkawa, which occur in the declarative, interrogative, and quotative/narrative clauses or statements.
| Clause | Suffix | Special Circumstances |
|---|---|---|
| Declarative | -aw or -aːwe | |
| Interrogative | -je or -jelkʷa | both take the ʔ suffix unless there is an interrogative pronoun |
| Quotative/ Narrative | -noʔo/ -laknoʔo | only added to verb forms with –k suffix and if the verb is used in telling a mythical story |
Writing system
The orthography used on the Tonkawa Tribe's website is similar to Americanist phonetic notation.
| Alphabet | Pronunciation | Alphabet | Pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|
| c | /ts/ | a | /a/ |
| h | /h/ | a· | /aː/ |
| k | /k/ | e | /e/ |
| kʷ | /kʷ/ | e· | /eː/ |
| l | /l/ | i | /i/ |
| m | /m/ | i· | /iː/ |
| n | /n/ | o | /o/ |
| p | /p/ | o· | /oː/ |
| s | /s/ | u | /u/ |
| t | /t/ | u· | /uː/ |
| w | /w/ | ||
| x | /x/ | ||
| xʷ | /xʷ/ | ||
| y | /j/ | ||
| ' or ? | /ʔ/ |
Long vowels are indicated with a following middle dot ⟨·⟩. The affricate /ts/ is written ⟨c⟩. The glottal stop /ʔ/ is written as either an apostrophe ⟨'⟩ or as a superscript question mark ⟨?⟩. The palatal glide /j/ is written ⟨y⟩.
The phonemic orthography used in Hoijer's Tonkawa Texts is a later version of Americanist transcription. It uses a colon for long vowels ⟨:⟩ and the traditional glottal stop symbol ⟨ʔ⟩. Examples are mummun 'salt' and mummunchicew 'pepper'.
Example
The following text is the first four sentences of Coyote and Jackrabbit, from Hoijer's Tonkawa Texts.
- ha·csokonayla ha·nanoklaknoˀo xamˀalˀa·yˀik. ˀe·kʷa tanmaslakʷa·low hecne·laklaknoˀo lak. ha·csokonayla "ˀo·c!" noklaknoˀo. "ˀekʷanesxaw sa·ken nenxales!" noklaknoˀo. ˀe·ta tanmaslakʷa·lowa·ˀa·lak hewleklaknoˀo.
Gloss:
- Coyote / he was going along, S / on the prairie. When he did so / Jackrabbit / he was lying, S / (accus.). Coyote / "Oho!" / he said, S. "Horse /my / I have found it!" / he said, S. And then / that Jackrabbit afm / he caught him, S.
In this gloss, S is an abbreviation for "it is said", and afm for "the aforementioned".
Vocabulary[3]
| English | Tonkawa |
|---|---|
| One | We:'ispax |
| Two | Ketay |
| Three | Metis |
| Four | Sikit |
| Five | Kaskwa |
| Man | Ha:'ako:n |
| Woman | Kwa:nla |
| Dog | 'Ekwan |
| Sun | Taxas |
| Water | A:x |
References
- Campbell, Lyle (2000). American Indian Languages The Historical Linguistics Of Native America. Oxford University Press. pp. 143. ISBN 9780195140507.
- International encyclopedia of linguistics. Frawley, William, 1953- (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 2003. ISBN 9780195307450. OCLC 66910002.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - "Tonkawa Words".
Sources
- Hoijer, Harry. (1933). Tonkawa: An Indian language of Texas. New York: Columbia University. (Extract from Handbook of American Indian languages, Vol. 3).
- Hoijer, Harry. (1946). Tonkawa. in Harry Hoijer et al., Linguistic Structures of Native America, 289–311.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1949). An Analytical Dictionary of the Tonkawa Language. Berkeley, CA: University of California Publications in Linguistics 5.
- Hoijer, Harry. (1972). Tonkawa Texts. Berkeley, CA: University of California Publications in Linguistics 73.
- Gatschet, Albert Samuel (1876). Zwölf Sprachen aus dem südwesten Nordamerikas (Pueblos- und Apache-mundarten; Tonto, Tonkawa, Digger, Utah.) Wortverzeichnisse herausgegeben, erläutert und mit einer Einleitung über Bau, Begriffsbildung und locale Gruppierung der amerikanischen Sprachen (in German). Weimar, Germany: H. Bohlau. Retrieved 2012-09-23.
- Kisseberth, Charles. (1970). Vowel Elision in Tonkawa and Derivational Constraints. In: Sadock, J.L., & A.L. Vanek (Eds), Studies Presentend to Robert B. Lees by his students. Champaign, IL: Linguistic Research, 109–137.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
- Noske, Roland. (1993). A Theory of Syllabification and Segmental Alternation. With studies on the phonology of French, German, Tonkawa and Yawelmani. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
- Phelps, Elaine F. (1973). Tonkawa, Sundanese and Kasem. Some problems in Generative Phonology. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle.
- Phelps, Elaine F. (1975). Iteration and Disjunctive Domains in Phonology. Linguistic Analysis 1, 137–172.
- "The Tonkawa Language: Pronunciation Key". Retrieved October 12, 2005.
External links
- The Tonkawa Language, includes online Tonkawa dictionary
- Tonkawa Indian Language
- OLAC resources in and about the Tonkawa language
Languages of Oklahoma | |
|---|---|
Italics indicate extinct languages * indicates extinct language in Oklahoma but still spoken elsewhere | |
| Indigenous |
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| Sign languages | |
| Non-Indigenous |
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| |
 Native American tribes in Texas | |
|---|---|
| Federally recognized tribes |
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| Indigenous languages | |
| Historical Indigenous peoples of Texas (Several are in Oklahoma today) |
|
| Related topics |
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† extinct language / ≠ extinct tribe / >< early, obsolete name of indigenous tribe(s) / ° people absorbed into other tribe(s) / * headquartered in Oklahoma today | |
На других языках
- [en] Tonkawa language
[es] Idioma tónkawa
El idioma tónkawa era hablado en Oklahoma, Texas y Nuevo México por la gente de Tonkawa. El tónkawa es un idioma extinto, y los miembros de la tribu tónkawa ahora hablan sólo inglés.[fr] Tonkawa
Le tonkawa est une langue amérindienne isolée parlée dans le Sud du Texas, aux États-Unis, par les Tonkawas.[it] Lingua tonkawa
La lingua tonkawa era parlata in Oklahoma, Texas e Nuovo Messico dai Tonkawa, un popolo di nativi americani. Una lingua isolata, senza parentele con nessuna lingua conosciuta, il Tonkawa è ora estinto, ed i membri della tribù Tonkawa parlano oggi solo inglese.[ru] Тонкава (язык)
Язык тонкава или аранама (Tonkawa)[1] был ранее распространён в штатах Оклахома, Техас и Нью-Мексико среди племени тонкава. Язык изолированный, живые родственники неизвестны. Близкими по языку могли быть угасшие ёхуан (англ.), мэйай (англ.), эрвипиаме (англ.)[1].Другой контент может иметь иную лицензию. Перед использованием материалов сайта WikiSort.org внимательно изучите правила лицензирования конкретных элементов наполнения сайта.
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