The Hangzhou dialect (simplified Chinese: 杭州话; traditional Chinese: 杭州話; pinyin: Hángzhōuhuà, Rhangzei Rhwa) is spoken in the city of Hangzhou, China and its immediate suburbs, but excluding areas further away from Hangzhou such as Xiāoshān (蕭山) and Yúháng (余杭) (both originally county-level cities and now the districts within Hangzhou City). The number of speakers of the Hangzhou dialect has been estimated to be about 1.2 to 1.5 million. It is a dialect of Wu, one of the Chinese varieties. The Hangzhou dialect is of immense interest to Chinese historical phonologists and dialectologists because phonologically, it exhibits extensive similarities with the other Wu dialects; however, grammatically and lexically, it shows many Mandarin tendencies.[2] The language itself has the basic characteristics of Wu language. However, several waves of migration from the north, represented by the southward relocation of the ruling centre of Song dynasty, have caused the local language system to undergo great changes and gradually take on a special character in Jiangnan region.[3] Hangzhou Dialect is classified as a "developing" language, with a rating of 5 on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS), showing that the language is still vigorously in use, but not sustainable or widespread.[4]
Hangzhou dialect | |
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杭州話, ɦaŋ-tsei-ɦu | |
Pronunciation | [ɦãtseiɦu] |
Native to | People's Republic of China |
Region | Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China |
Native speakers | (1.2 million cited 1987)[1] |
Language family | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | – |
ISO 639-6 | hgou |
Glottolog | hang1257 |
Linguasphere | 79-AAA-dbd |
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The Hangzhou dialect is classified under Wu Chinese, although some western linguists claim Hangzhou is a Mandarin Chinese language.
Richard VanNess Simmons, a professor of Chinese at Rutgers University in New Jersey, United States, claims that the Hangzhou dialect, rather than being Wu as it was classified by Yuen Ren Chao, is a Mandarin variant closely related to Jianghuai Mandarin. The Hangzhou dialect is still classified under Wu. Chao had developed a "Common Wu Syllabary" for the Wu dialects. Simmons claimed that had Chao compared the Hangzhou dialect to the Wu syllabary and Jianghuai Mandarin, he would have found more similarities to Jianghuai.[5] Jianghuai Mandarin shares an "old literary layer" as a stratum with southern languages like Min Nan, Hakka, Gan and Hangzhou dialects, which it does not share with Northern Mandarin. Sino-Vietnamese also shares some of these characteristics. The stratum in Min Nan specifically consist of Zeng group and Geng group's "n" and "t" finals when an "i" initial is present.[6][7]
John H. McWhorter claimed that the Hangzhou dialect was categorized as a Wu dialect because seven tones are present in Hangzhou, which is significantly more than the typical number of tones found in northern Mandarin dialects, which is four.[8]
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It stretches from yuhang xiasha in the east to the Qiangtang River in the south. A growing number of Hangzhounese speakers is emerging overseas in New York City, United States.
The Hangzhou dialect is mainly spoken in the urban area in Hangzhou, including the urban area of Gongshu district, Shangcheng district, Xiacheng district, the urban area of Jianggan district, the urban area and seven villages of Xihu district, and part of Binjiang district.[9]
Vowels[10]
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
High | i y | ï ÿ | u |
ö | o | ||
Mid | e | ||
Low | œ | ô | |
a |
Labial | Dental/Alveolar | Alveolo-palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | ||
Plosive | tenuis | p | t | k | ʔ | |
aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | kʰ | |||
voiced | b | d | ɡ | |||
Affricate | tenuis | ts | tɕ | |||
aspirated | tsʰ | tɕʰ | ||||
voiced | dz | dʑ | ||||
Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ɕ | h | |
voiced | v | z | ɦ | |||
Lateral | l |
Front | Central | Back | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Unrounded | Rounded | |||
Close | /i/ | /y/ | /u/ | |
Close-mid | /e/ | /o/ | ||
Open-mid | /ɛ/ | /ə/ | /ɔ/ | |
Open | /a/ |
Coda | Open | Nasal | Glottal stop | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Medial | ∅ | j | w~ʮ | ∅ | j | w~ʮ | ∅ | j | w~ʮ | |
Nucleus | i | i | iɲ | jɛʔ | ||||||
y | y | yɲ | ɥɛʔ | |||||||
u | u | |||||||||
e | ei | wei | ||||||||
o | ou | jo | wo~ʮo | oŋ | joŋ | oʔ | joʔ | |||
ɛ | ɛ | jɛ | wɛ~ʮɛ | |||||||
ə | ən | wən~ʮən | ||||||||
ɔ | ɔ | jɔ | ||||||||
a | a | ja | wa~ʮa | ã | jã | wã~ʮã | aʔ | waʔ~ʮaʔ |
Notes:
The Middle Chinese [-ŋ] rimes are retained, while [-n] and [-m] are either retained or have disappeared in the Hangzhou dialect. Middle Chinese [-p -t -k] rimes have become glottal stops, [-ʔ].
Phonological features
Contrast
In HZD, bilabial fricatives [ɸ] and [β] are allophone of bilabial fricatives /f/ and /v/ after [u].[13]
Character | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
符 | [βu334] | symbol |
付 | [ɸu213] | pay |
Vowels /y/ and /ʏ/ are contrastive, representing different characters with different meaning.[14]
Character | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
流 | [lʏ13] | moving of liquid |
虑 | [ly13] | concerns |
Glottalization of initial nasals and laterals
Some initial nasals and laterals are glottalized.[13]
Character | IPA | Gloss |
---|---|---|
缕 | [ʔlɪ53] | thin line |
你 | [ʔni53] | you |
我 | [ʔŋo13] | I |
奶 | [ʔnE53] | grandmother |
In Hangzhou dialect (hereafter: HZD), phonetic symbol is divided into onsets and rhymes using onset-rhyme model. Onsets are simple and not mandatory, vowels can appear initially if [m], [n] and [əl] appear in the rhyme. HZD does not allow codas, but nasals are permitted at the end of the syllable, if they are part of the complex nucleus.[15]
The old Hangzhou dialect has 53 rhymes</ref>.
Rhymes in old HZD | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ɿ | ə | ɑ | ɛ | ɔ | o | ø | ei |
i | m̩ | iɑ | iɛ | iɔ | iø | ||
u | n̩ | uɑ | uɛ | uo | ui | ||
ɥ | əl | ɥɑ | ɥɛ | ɥei | |||
y | |||||||
en | ɑŋ | oŋ | ɑʔ | əʔ | oʔ | ||
ɛ̃ | in | iɑŋ | ioŋ | iɑʔ | iəʔ | ioʔ | |
iɛ̃ | uõ | un | uɑŋ | uɑʔ | uoʔ | ||
ɥõ | ɥen | ɥɑŋ | ɥɑʔ | ɥəʔ | |||
yõ | yn | yəʔ |
The Hangzhou tonal system is similar to that of the Suzhou dialect, in that some words with shàng tone in Middle Chinese have merged with the yīn qù tone. Since the tone split dating from Middle Chinese still depends on the voicing of the initial consonant, these constitute just three phonemic tones: pin, shang, and qu. (Ru syllables are phonemically toneless.)
Tone number | Tone name | Tone letters | Description |
---|---|---|---|
1 | yin ping (陰平) | ˧˨˧ (323) | mid dipping |
2 | yang ping (陽平) | ˨˩˨ (212) | low dipping |
3 | shang (上) | ˥˩ (51) | falling |
4 | yin qu (陰去) | ˧˦ (334) | mid rising |
5 | yang qu (陽去) | ˩˧ (113) | low rising |
6 | yin ru (陰入) | ˥ʔ (5) | high checked |
7 | yang ru (陽入) | ˩˨ʔ (12) | low checked |
In HZD, the tones will change not only because of the nearby tones, but also due to the phrase structures.[15]
Time
Expression of person, categorized by generation
The most important event to have impacted Hangzhou's dialect was the city's establishment as Lin'an, the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty. When the Northern Song Dynasty was conquered by the Jin Dynasty in 1127, large numbers of northern refugees fled to what is now Hangzhou, speaking predominantly Mandarin of the Henan variety. Within 30 years, contemporary accounts record that immigrants outnumbered natives in Hangzhou. This resulted in Mandarin influences in the pronunciation, lexicon and grammar of the Hangzhou dialect.
Further influence by Mandarin occurred after the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty in 1912. The local Manchu garrisons were dissolved, adding significant numbers of the Beijing dialect Mandarin speakers to the population.
Because of the frequent commerce and intercourse between Hangzhou and Shaoxing, the Hangzhou dialect is also influenced by the Shaoxing dialect.
In recent years, with the standardization of Mandarin, the vitality of the Hangzhou dialect is decreasing.[4] As Kandrysawtz concluded, the Hangzhou dialect is spoken in fewer places and by fewer people, especially the younger generation.[4] Some people also hold the attitude that the Hangzhou dialect is not appropriate in official occasions.[4]
Had Chao developed a syllabary for the Jiang-Huai Mandarin dialects with a diagnostic power and representativeness comparable to that of his Wu Syllabary, and had he placed Hangzhou in that context, he most surely would have discovered
We point out that in fact this stratum is an old literary layer in Minnan dialects. We find it also exists in Hakka-gan dialects, the Hangzhou dialect. South East Mandarins, & Jianghuai Mandarins extensively. In Sino-annamite. there are(the University of Michigan)
We find it also exists in Hakka-gan dialects, Hangzhou dialect, South East Mandarins, Jianghuai Mandarins extensively. In Sino-annamite, there are some similarities to Minnan dialects. Basing on our new findings, we believe that in Song
For example, many Mandarin dialects have more than four tones. Hangzhou has no fewer than seven, such that it was previously classified as a Wu dialect (Simmons 1992; Baxter 2000, 106–8). In the Jiang-Huai region five-tone dialects are not uncommon, with six-tone ones reported on the Northern/Central boundary (Norman 1988, 194). These represent a retention of one of the original four tones of Middle Chinese (the rù tone), as distinguished from the more common Mandarin trait of having lost this tone while collapsing the two-way register distinction between the three others into a four-tone contrast not contingent upon register
Sino-Tibetan branches | |||||
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Western Himalayas (Himachal, Uttarakhand, Nepal, Sikkim) |
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Eastern Himalayas (Tibet, Bhutan, Arunachal) | |||||
Myanmar and Indo-Burmese border |
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East and Southeast Asia |
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Dubious (possible isolates) (Arunachal) |
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Proposed groupings | |||||
Proto-languages |
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Italics indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches. |
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Major subdivisions |
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Standardised forms |
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Phonology |
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Grammar |
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Set phrase |
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Input method |
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History |
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Literary forms |
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Scripts |
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List of varieties of Chinese |
Zhejiang topics | |
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Hangzhou (capital) | |
General | |
Geography |
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Culture |
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