lingvo.wikisort.org - Language

The Shanghainese language, also known as the Shanghai dialect, or Hu language, is a variety of Wu Chinese spoken in the central districts of the City of Shanghai and its surrounding areas. It is classified as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Shanghainese, like the rest of the Wu language group, is mutually unintelligible with other varieties of Chinese, such as Mandarin.[1]

Shanghainese
上海話 / 上海话, Zaon6 he5 gho6 上海閒話 / 上海闲话, Zaon6 he5 ghe6 gho6 滬語 / 沪语, Wu6 gniu6
Pronunciation	[zɑ̃̀hɛ́ ɦɛ̀ɦò], [ɦùȵỳ]
Native to	China
Region	City of Shanghai and surrounding Yangtze River Delta
Ethnicity	Shanghainese
Native speakers	14 million (2013)
Language family	Sino-Tibetan Sinitic Wu Taihu Su–Hu–Jia Shanghainese
Writing system	Chinese characters
Language codes
ISO 639-3	–
ISO 639-6	suji
Linguist List	wuu-sha
Glottolog	shan1293  Shanghainese
Linguasphere	79-AAA-dbb >
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Shanghainese
Traditional Chinese	上海話
Simplified Chinese	上海话
Shanghainese Romanization	Zaon6 he5 gho6 [zɑ̃̀hɛ́ɦò]
Literal meaning	Shanghai language
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Shànghǎihuà Wu Shanghainese Romanization Zaon6 he5 gho6 [zɑ̃̀hɛ́ɦò]
Shanghainese
Traditional Chinese	上海閒話
Simplified Chinese	上海闲话
Shanghainese Romanization	Zaon6 he5 ghe6 gho6 [zɑ̃̀hɛ́ ɦɛ̀ɦò]
Literal meaning	Shanghai speech
Transcriptions Wu Shanghainese Romanization Zaon6 he5 ghe6 gho6 [zɑ̃̀hɛ́ ɦɛ̀ɦò]
Hu language
Traditional Chinese	滬語
Simplified Chinese	沪语
Shanghainese Romanization	Wu6 gniu6 [ɦùȵỳ]
Literal meaning	Hu (Shanghai) language
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Hùyǔ Wu Shanghainese Romanization Wu6 gniu6 [ɦùȵỳ]

Shanghainese belongs a separate group of the Taihu Wu subgroup. With nearly 14 million speakers, Shanghainese is also the largest single form of Wu Chinese. Since the late 19th century it has served as the lingua franca of the entire Yangtze River Delta region, but in recent decades its status has declined relative to Mandarin, which most Shanghainese speakers can also speak.[2]

Shanghainese is rich in vowels [i y ɪ ʏ e ø ɛ ə ɐ a ɑ ɔ ɤ o ʊ u] (twelve of which are phonemic) and in consonants. Like other Taihu Wu dialects, Shanghainese has voiced initials [b d ɡ ɦ z v dʑ ʑ]: neither Cantonese nor Mandarin has voiced initial stops or affricates. The Shanghainese tonal system is also significantly different from other Chinese languages, sharing more similarities with the Japanese pitch accent, with two level tonal contrasts (high and low), whereas Cantonese and Mandarin are typical of contour tonal languages.

History

This section possibly contains inappropriate or misinterpreted citations that do not verify the text. (July 2011)

Shanghai did not become a regional center of commerce until it was opened to foreign investment during the western advancement upgrading of concessions. Consequently, languages and dialects spoken around Shanghai had long been subordinate to those spoken around Jiaxing and later Suzhou. In fact, "speakers of other Wu dialects traditionally treat the Shanghai vernacular somewhat contemptuously as a mixture of Suzhou and Ningbo dialects."[3] In the late 19th century, most vocabulary of the Shanghai area had been a hybrid between Southern Jiangsu and Ningbonese.[4] Since the 1850s, owing to the growth of Shanghai's economy, Shanghainese has become one of the fastest-developing languages of the Wu Chinese subgroup, undergoing rapid changes and quickly replacing Suzhounese as the prestige dialect of the Yangtze River Delta region. It underwent sustained growth that reached a hiatus in the 1930s during the Republican era, when migrants arrived in Shanghai and immersed themselves in the local tongue.

After 1949, the new People's Republic of China government imposed Standard Chinese as the official language of the whole nation of China. The dominance and influence of Shanghainese began to wane slightly. Since the Chinese economic reform began in 1978, especially, Shanghai became home to a great number of migrants from all over the country. Due to the national prominence of Standard Chinese, learning Shanghainese was no longer necessary for migrants, because those educated after the 1950s could generally communicate in Standard Chinese. However, Shanghainese remained a vital part of the city's culture and retained its prestige status within the local population. In the 1990s, it was still common for local radio and television broadcasts to be in Shanghainese. In 1995, the TV series Sinful Debt featured extensive Shanghainese dialogue; when it was broadcast outside Shanghai (mainly in adjacent Wu-speaking provinces) Mandarin subtitles were added. The Shanghainese TV series Lao Niang Jiu (Old Uncle) was broadcast from 1995 to 2007[5] and was popular among Shanghainese residents. Shanghainese programming has since slowly declined amid regionalist/localist accusations.

From 1992 onward, Shanghainese use was discouraged in schools, and many children native to Shanghai can no longer speak Shanghainese.[6] In addition, Shanghai's emergence as a cosmopolitan global city consolidated the status of Mandarin as the standard language of business and services, at the expense of the local language.[4]

Since 2005, new movements have emerged to protect Shanghainese from fading away. At municipal legislative discussions in 2005, former Shanghai opera actress Ma Lili moved to "protect" the language, stating that she was one of the few remaining Shanghai opera actresses who still retained authentic classic Shanghainese pronunciation in their performances. Shanghai's former party boss Chen Liangyu, a native Shanghainese himself, reportedly supported her proposal.[4] There have been talks of re-integrating Shanghainese into pre-kindergarten education, because many children are unable to speak any Shanghainese. A citywide program was introduced by the city government's language committee in 2006 to record native speakers of different Shanghainese varieties for archival purposes and, by 2010, many Shanghainese-language programs were running.[7]

The Shanghai government has begun to reverse its course and seek fluent speakers of authentic Shanghainese, but only two out of thirteen recruitment stations have found traditional Shanghainese speakers; the rest of the 14 million people of Shanghai speak modern Shanghainese,^{[clarification needed]} and it has been predicted that local variants will be wiped out. Professor Qian Nairong is working on efforts to save the language.[8][9] In response to criticism, Qian reminds people that Shanghainese was once fashionable, saying, "the popularization of Mandarin doesn't equal the ban of dialects. It doesn't make Mandarin a more civilized language either. Promoting dialects is not a narrow-minded localism, as it has been labeled by some netizens".[10] The singer and composer Eheart Chen sings many of his songs in Shanghainese instead of Mandarin to preserve the language.[11]

Since 2006, the Modern Baby Kindergarten in Shanghai has prohibited all of its students from speaking anything but Shanghainese on Fridays to preserve the language amongst younger speakers.[12] In 2011, Professor Qian said that the sole remaining speakers of real Shanghainese are a group of Shanghainese peoples over the age of 60 and native citizens who have little outside contact, and he strongly urges that Shanghainese be taught in the regular school system from kindergarten all the way to elementary, saying it is the only way to save Shanghainese, and that attempts to introduce it in university courses and operas are not enough.

Fourteen native Shanghainese speakers had audio recordings made of their Shanghainese on May 31, 2011. They were selected based on accent purity, way of pronunciation and other factors.[13]

By June 2012, a new television program airing in Shanghainese was created.[14]

Status

Han Chinese of various racial ancestries, who make up 90% of the Chinese population, speak at least seven topolect groups that each contain many subdivisions and are not mutually intelligible. The remaining 10% of people, who belong to minor ethnic groups, speak more than 300 languages. Before the establishment of the People's Republic of China, there were already attempts to establish a common language system. Therefore, the language issue has always been an important part of Beijing's rule. Other than the government language-management efforts, the rate of rural-to-urban migration in China has also accelerated the shift to Standard Chinese and the disappearance of native languages and dialects in the urban areas.[15]

As more people moved into Shanghai, the economic center of China, Shanghainese has been threatened despite it originally being a strong topolect of Wu Chinese. According to the Shanghai Municipal Statistics Bureau, the population of Shanghai was estimated to be 24.28 million in 2019, of whom 14.5 million are permanent residents and 9.77 million are migrant residents.[16] To have better communication with foreign residents and develop a top-level financial center among the world, the promotion of the official language, Standard Mandarin, became very important. Therefore, the Shanghai Municipal Government banned the use of Shanghainese in public places, schools, and work.[15]

A survey of students from the primary school in 2010 indicated that 52.3% of students believed Mandarin is easier than Shanghainese for communication, and 47.6% of the students choose to speak Mandarin because it is a mandatory language at school. Furthermore, 68.3% of the students are more willing to study Mandarin, but only 10.2% of the students are more willing to study Shanghainese.[17]

Many youth can no longer speak Shanghainese fluently because they had no chance to practice it at school. Also, they were unwilling to communicate with their parents in Shanghainese, which has accelerated its decline.[18] The survey in 2010 indicated that 62.6% of primary school students use Mandarin as the first language at home, but only 17.3% of them use Shanghainese to communicate with their parents.[17]

Shanghainese is sometimes viewed as a tool to discriminate against immigrants.[19] Migrants who move from other Chinese cities to Shanghai have little ability to speak Shanghainese. Among the migrant people, some believe Shanghainese represents the superiority of native Shanghainese people. Some also believe that native residents intentionally speak Shanghainese in some places to discriminate against the immigrant population to transfer their anger to migrant workers, who take over their homeland and take advantage of housing, education, medical, and job resources.[20]

Intelligibility

Shanghainese is part of the larger Wu Chinese group of Chinese languages. It is not mutually intelligible with any dialects of Standard Chinese, or Cantonese, Southern Min (such as Taiwanese Hokkien), and any other Chinese languages outside Wu. Suzhounese, a fellow member of the Northern Wu subfamily, has about 29%-30% lexical similarity with standard Mandarin[21] (English and French for example have around 27%). Newer varieties of Shanghainese, however, have been influenced by standard Chinese as well as Cantonese and other varieties, making the Shanghainese idiolects spoken by young people in the city different from that spoken by the older population. Also, the practice of inserting Mandarin into Shanghainese conversations is very common, at least for young people.[22] Like most subdivisions of Chinese, it is easier for a local speaker to understand Mandarin than it is for a Mandarin speaker to understand the local language.

Shanghainese is somewhat similar to the speech of neighboring cities of Changshu, Jiaxing and Suzhou, categorized into Su-Hu-Jia dialect subgroup (苏沪嘉小片) of Wu Chinese by linguists. People mingling between those areas do not need to code-switch to Mandarin when they speak to each other. However, there are noticeable tonal and phonological changes, which do not impede intelligibility. As the dialect continuum of Wu continues to further distances, however, significant changes occur in phonology and lexicon to the point that it is no longer possible to converse intelligibly. Most Shanghainese speakers find that by Wuxi, differences become significant and that the Wuxi dialect would take weeks to months for a Shanghainese-speaker to learn fully. Similarly, Hangzhou dialect is understood by most Shanghainese-speakers, but it is considered "rougher", as well as being significantly more influenced by Mandarin, due to its status as the national capital during the Southern Song. The language evolved in and around Taizhou, Zhejiang, where it becomes difficult for a Shanghainese speaker to comprehend. Wenzhounese, spoken in the southernmost part of Zhejiang province, is considered part of the Wu group but mutually unintelligible with Shanghainese.

Phonology

Following conventions of Chinese syllable structure, Shanghainese syllables can be divided into initials and finals. The initial occupies the first part of the syllable. The final occupies the second part of the syllable and can be divided further into an optional medial and an obligatory rime (sometimes spelled rhyme). Tone is also a feature of the syllable in Shanghainese.[23]^: 6–16 Syllabic tone, which is typical to the other Sinitic languages, has largely become verbal tone in Shanghainese.^{[citation needed]}

Initials

Initial Consonants

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m	n	ȵ	ŋ
Plosive	plain	p	t̪		k	ʔ
	aspirated	pʰ	t̪ʰ		kʰ
	voiced	b	d̪		ɡ
Affricate	plain		ts	tɕ
	aspirated		tsʰ	tɕʰ
	voiced			dʑ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	ɕ		h
	voiced	v	z	ʑ		ɦ
Lateral			l

Shanghainese has a set of tenuis, lenis and fortis plosives and affricates, as well as a set of voiceless and voiced fricatives. Alveolo-palatal initials are also present in Shanghainese.

Voiced stops are phonetically voiceless with slack voice phonation in stressed, word initial position.[24] This phonation (often referred to as murmur) also occurs in zero onset syllables, syllables beginning with fricatives, and syllables beginning with sonorants. These consonants are true voiced in intervocalic position.[25]

Finals

The table below lists the vowel nuclei of Shanghainese[26]

Vowel nuclei

	Front		Central	Back
	Unrounded	Rounded
Close	/i/	/y/		/u, o/
Mid	/ɛ/	/ø/	/ə/	/ɔ/
Open			/a/	/ɑ/
Diphthong	/e(i), ɤ(ɯ)/

The following chart lists all possible finals (medial + nucleus + coda) in Shanghainese represented in IPA.[26][27][23]^: 11

Finals

Coda		Open			Nasal			Glottal stop
Medial		∅	j	w	∅	j	w	∅	j	w
Nucleus	a	a	ja	wa	ɐ̃	jɐ̃	wɐ̃	ɐʔ	jɐʔ	wɐʔ
	ɑ				ɑ̃	jɑ̃	wɑ̃
	e	e		we
	ɛ	ɛ	jɛ	wɛ
	ə				ən		wən	əʔ		wəʔ
	ɤ	ɤ	jɤ
	o	o
	ɔ	ɔ	jɔ
	ø	ø	jø	wø
	i	i			ɪɲ			ɪʔ
	u	u			ʊŋ	jʊŋ		ʊʔ	jʊʔ
	y	y			ʏɲ			ʏʔ

Syllabic continuants: [z̩] [m̩] [ŋ̩] [l̩]

The transcriptions used above are broad and the following points are of note when pertaining to actual pronunciation:[26]

• /u, o/ are similar in pronunciation, differing slightly in lip rounding ([ɯ̽ᵝ, ʊ] respectively). /i, jɛ/ are also similar in pronunciation, differing slightly in vowel height ([i̞, i] respectively). These two pairs are each merged^[specify] in younger generations.
• Many in younger generations diphthongize /e, ɤ/ to [ei, ɤɯ].
• /j/ is pronounced [ɥ] before rounded vowels.

The Middle Chinese [-ŋ] rimes are retained, while [-n] and [-m] are either retained or have disappeared in Shanghainese. Middle Chinese [-p -t -k] rimes have become glottal stops, [-ʔ].[28]

Tones

Shanghainese has five phonetically distinguishable tones for single syllables said in isolation. These tones are illustrated below in Chao tone names. In terms of Middle Chinese tone designations, the yin tone category has three tones (yinshang and yinqu tones have merged into one tone), while the yang category has two tones (the yangping, yangshang, and yangqu have merged into one tone).[29][23]^: 17

Five Shanghainese Citation Tones
with Middle Chinese Classifications

	Ping (平)	Shang (上)	Qu (去)	Ru (入)
Yin (陰/阴)	52 (T1)	34 (T2)		44ʔ (T4)
Yang (陽/阳)	14 (T3)			24ʔ (T5)

The conditioning factors which led to the yin–yang split still exist in Shanghainese, as they do in other Wu dialects: yang tones are only found with voiced initials [b d ɡ z v dʑ ʑ m n ɲ ŋ l ɦ], while the yin tones are only found with voiceless initials.^{[citation needed]}

The ru tones are abrupt, and describe those rimes which end in a glottal stop /ʔ/. That is, both the yin–yang distinction and the ru tones are allophonic (dependent on syllabic structure). Shanghainese has only a two-way phonemic tone contrast,[30] falling vs rising, and then only in open syllables with voiceless initials.

Tone sandhi

Tone sandhi is a process whereby adjacent tones undergo dramatic alteration in connected speech. Similar to other Northern Wu dialects, Shanghainese is characterized by two forms of tone sandhi: a word tone sandhi and a phrasal tone sandhi.

Word tone sandhi in Shanghainese can be described as left-prominent and is characterized by a dominance of the first syllable over the contour of the entire tone domain. As a result, the underlying tones of syllables other than the leftmost syllable, have no effect on the tone contour of the domain. The pattern is generally described as tone spreading (T1-4) or tone shifting (T5, except for 4- and 5-syllable compounds, which can undergo spreading or shifting). The table below illustrates possible tone combinations.

Left-Prominent Sandhi Tone Values

Tone	One syllable	Two syllables	Three syllables	Four syllables	Five syllables
T1	52	55 22	55 44 22	55 44 33 22	55 44 33 33 22
T2	34	33 44	33 44 22	33 44 33 22	33 44 33 33 22
T3	14	11 44	11 44 11	11 44 33 11	11 44 33 22 11
T4	44	33 44	33 44 22	33 44 33 22	33 44 33 22 22
T5	24	11 24	11 11 24	11 22 22 24 22 44 33 11	11 11 11 11 24 22 44 33 22 11

As an example, in isolation, the two syllables of the word for China are pronounced with T1 and T4: /tsʊŋ˥˨/ and /kwəʔ˦/. However, when pronounced in combination, T1 from /tsʊŋ/ spreads over the compound resulting in the following pattern /tsʊŋ˥kwəʔ˨/. Similarly, the syllables in a common expression for foolish have the following underlying phonemic and tonal representations: /zəʔ˨˦/ (T5), /sɛ˥˨/ (T1), and /ti˧˦/ (T2). However, the syllables in combination exhibit the T5 shifting pattern where the first-syllable T5 shifts to the last syllable in the domain: /zəʔ˩sɛ˩ti˨˦/.[23]^: 38–46

Phrasal tone sandhi in Shanghainese can be described as right-prominent and is characterized by a right syllable retaining its underlying tone and a left syllable receiving a mid-level tone based on the underlying tone's register. The table below indicates possible left syllable tones in right-prominent compounds.[23]^: 46–47

Possible Left Syllable Tone Values in Right-Prominent Sandhi

Tone	Underlying Tone	Neutralized Tone
T1	52	44
T2	34	44
T3	14	33
T4	44	44
T5	24	22

For instance, when combined, /ma˩˦/ ("buy") and /tɕjɤ˧˦/ ("wine") become /ma˧tɕjɤ˧˦/ ("buy wine").

Sometimes meaning can change based on whether left-prominent or right-prominent sandhi is used. For example, /tsʰɔ˧˦/ ("fry") and /mi˩˦/ ("noodle") when pronounced /tsʰɔ˧mi˦/ (i.e., with left-prominent sandhi) means "fried noodles". When pronounced /tsʰɔ˦mi˩˦/ (i.e., with right-prominent sandhi), it means "to fry noodles".[23]^: 35

Common words and phrases

Note: Chinese characters for Shanghainese are not standardized and are provided for reference only. IPA transcription is for the Middle Period of modern Shanghainese (中派上海话), pronunciation of those between 20 and 60 years old.

Translation	Traditional Chinese	Simplified Chinese	IPA	Romanisation[lower-alpha 1]
Shanghainese (language)	上海閒話 or 上海言話	上海闲话 or 上海言话	[zɑ̃¹¹.hɛ⁴⁴ ɦɛ¹¹.ɦo⁴⁴]	zaon6 he ghe6 gho
Shanghainese (people)	上海人		[zɑ̃¹¹.hɛ⁴⁴.ɲɪɲ¹¹]	zaon6 he gnin
I	吾, 我		[ŋu¹⁴]	ngu6
we or I	阿拉		[ɐʔ³³.la⁴⁴]	aq7 la
he/she	伊（佢, 渠, 其）		[ɦi¹⁴]	yi6
they	伊拉（佢拉, 渠拉）		[ɦi¹¹.la⁴⁴]	yi6 la
you (sing.)	儂	侬	[nʊŋ¹⁴]	non6
you (plural)	倷[lower-alpha 2]		[na¹⁴]	na6
hello	儂好	侬好	[nʊŋ¹⁴.hɔ³⁴]	non6 hau5
good-bye	再會	再会	[tsɛ⁵⁵.ɦwe²²]	tse1 we
thank you	謝謝儂	谢谢侬	[ʑja¹¹.ja⁴⁴.nʊŋ¹¹] or [ʑja¹¹.ʑja⁴⁴.nʊŋ¹¹]	zhia6 ya non, zhia6 zhia non
sorry	對勿起	对勿起	[te³³.vəʔ⁴⁴.tɕʰi²²]	te5 veq chi
but, however	但是, 但是呢		[dɛ¹¹.z̩⁴⁴], [dɛ¹¹.z̩⁴⁴.ɲi¹¹]	de6 zy (gni)
please	請	请	[tɕʰɪɲ³⁴]	chin5
that one	埃隻，伊隻	埃只，伊只	[ɛ⁵⁵.tsɐʔ²²], [i⁵⁵.tsɐʔ²²]	e1 tsaq, i1 tsaq
this one	箇隻	箇只	[ɡəʔ¹¹.tsɐʔ²⁴]	geq8 tsaq
there	埃𡍲, 伊𡍲		[ɛ⁵⁵.tɐʔ²²], [i⁵⁵.tɐʔ²²]	e1 taq, i1 taq
over there	埃面𡍲, 伊面𡍲		[ɛ⁵⁵.mi³³.tɐʔ²²], [i⁵⁵.mi³³.tɐʔ²²]	e1 mi taq, i1 mi taq
here	搿𡍲		[ɡəʔ¹¹.tɐʔ²⁴]	geq8 taq
to have	有得		[ɦjɤ¹¹.təʔ⁴⁴]	yeu6 teq
to exist, here, present	徕許, 勒許	徕许, 勒许	[lɐʔ¹¹.hɛ²⁴]	laq8 he
now, current	現在	现在	[ɦi¹¹.zɛ⁴⁴]	yi6 ze
what time is it?	現在幾點鐘？	现在几点钟？	[ɦi¹¹.zɛ⁴⁴ tɕi³³.ti⁴⁴ tsʊŋ²²]	yi6 ze ci5 ti tson
where	何裏𡍲, 啥地方	何里𡍲, 啥地方	[ɦa¹¹.li⁴⁴.tɐʔ¹¹], [sa³³.di⁴⁴.fɑ̃²²]	gha6 li taq, sa5 di6 faon
what	（啥個）	啥个	[sa³³.ɦəʔ⁴⁴]	sa5 gheq8
who	啥人, 何里位		[sa³³.ɲɪɲ⁴⁴], [ɦa¹¹.li⁴⁴.ɦwe¹¹]	sa5 gnin6, gha6 li we
why	（為啥）	为啥	[ɦwe³³.sa³⁴]	we6 sa5
when		啥辰光	[sa⁴⁴.zən¹¹.kwɑ̃⁴⁴]	sa5 zen6 kuaon
how	哪能（哪恁）, 哪能介（哪恁介		[na¹¹.nən⁴⁴], [na¹¹.nən⁴⁴.ka¹¹]	na3 nen, na3 nen ka
how much?	幾鈿？	几钿？	[tɕi³³.di⁵⁴]	ci5 di
yes	哎		[ɛ⁵²]	e1
no	嘸，勿是，嘸沒，覅	呒, 勿是, 呒没, 覅	[m̩¹⁴], [vəʔ¹¹.z̩²⁴], [m̩¹¹.məʔ⁴⁴], [vjɔ¹⁴]	m6, veq8 zy, m6 meq, viau6
telephone number	電話號頭	电话号头	[di¹¹.ɦo⁴⁴ ɦɔ¹¹.dɤ⁴⁴]	di6 gho ghau6 deu
home	屋裏	屋里	[ʊʔ³³.li⁴⁴]	oq7 li
Come to our house and play.	到阿拉屋裏向來孛相！	到阿拉屋里向来孛相（白相）！	[tɔ⁵⁵ ɐʔ³³.la⁴⁴ ʊʔ³³.li⁴⁴.ɕjɐ̃²² lɛ³³ bəʔ¹¹.ɕjɐ̃²⁴]	tau1 aq7 la oq7 li shian le6 beq8 shian
Where's the restroom?	汏手間勒勒何裏𡍲？	汏手间勒勒何里𡍲？	[da¹¹.sɤ⁴⁴.kɛ¹¹ ləʔ¹¹.ləʔ²⁴ ɦa¹¹.li⁴⁴.tɐʔ¹¹]	da6 seu ke laq8 laq gha6 li taq
Have you eaten dinner?	夜飯喫過了𠲎？	夜饭吃过了𠲎？[lower-alpha 3]	[ɦja¹¹.vɛ⁴⁴ tɕʰɪʔ³³.ku⁴⁴.ləʔ³³ va²²]	ya6 ve chiq7 ku leq va
I don't know	我勿曉得。	我勿晓得。	[ŋu¹⁴ vəʔ²².ɕjɔ⁵⁵.təʔ²²]	ngu6 veq8 shiau1 teq
Do you speak English?	儂英文講得來𠲎？	侬英文讲得来𠲎？[lower-alpha 3]	[nʊŋ¹⁴ ɪɲ⁵⁵.vən²² kɑ̃³³.təʔ⁴⁴.lɛ¹⁵ va⁴⁴]	non6 in1 ven kaon5 teq le6 va
I adore you	我愛慕儂！	我爱慕侬	[ŋu¹⁴ ɛ⁴⁵.mu²² nʊŋ¹⁴]	ngu6 e1 mu non6
I like you a lot	我老歡喜儂个！	我老欢喜侬个！	[ŋu¹⁴ lɔ¹⁴ hwø⁵⁵.ɕi²² nʊŋ¹⁴ əʔ⁴⁴]	ngu6 lau6 huoe1 shi non6 eq7
news	新聞	新闻	[ɕɪɲ⁵⁵.vən²²]	shin1 ven
dead	死脫了	死脱了	[ɕi³³.tʰəʔ⁴⁴.ləʔ²²]	shi5 theq leq
alive	活勒嗨（活着）		[ɦwəʔ¹¹.ləʔ¹¹.hɛ²⁴]	weq8 leq he
a lot	交關	交关	[tɕjɔ⁴⁵.kwɛ²²]	ciau1 kue
inside, within	裏向	里向	[li¹¹.ɕjɐ̃⁴⁴]	li6 shian
outside	外頭	外头	[ŋa¹¹.dɤ⁴⁴]	nga6 deu
How are you?	儂好𠲎？	侬好𠲎？[lower-alpha 3]	[nʊŋ¹⁴ hɔ³³ va⁴⁴]	non6 hau5 va

Literary and vernacular pronunciations

This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2016)

字	Literary	Vernacular	English translation	Mandarin
家	tɕia˥˨	ka˥˨	house	jiā
顏	ɦiɪ˩˩˧	ŋʱɛ˩˩˧	face	yán
櫻	ʔiŋ˥˨	ʔɐ̃˥˨	cherry	yīng
孝	ɕiɔ˧˧˥	hɔ˧˧˥	filial piety	xiào
學	ʱjɐʔ˨	ʱʊʔ˨	learning	xué
物	vəʔ˨	mʱəʔ˨	thing	wù
網	ʱwɑŋ˩˩˧	mʱɑŋ˩˩˧	web	wǎng
鳳	voŋ˩˩˧	boŋ˩˩˧	male phoenix	fèng
肥	vi˩˩˧	bi˩˩˧	fat	féi
日	zəʔ˨	ɲʱiɪʔ˨	sun	rì
人	zən˩˩˧	ɲʱin˩˩˧	person	rén
鳥	ʔɲiɔ˧˧˥	tiɔ˧˧˥[31]	bird	niǎo

Grammar

This section is missing information about Chinese orthography for examples so that native speakers can read it (by the way, which romanization is this? [ɦ] as x?). (May 2022)

Like all Sinitic languages, Shanghainese is an isolating language[32] that lacks marking for tense, person, case, number or gender. Similarly, there is no distinction for tense or person in verbs, with word order and particles generally expressing these grammatical characteristics. There are, however, three important derivational processes in Shanghainese.[33]

Although formal inflection is very rare in all varieties of Chinese, there does exist in Shanghainese a morpho-phonological tone sandhi[34] that Zhu (2006) identifies as a form of inflection since it forms new words out of pre-existing phrases.[35] This type of inflection is a distinguishing characteristic of all Northern Wu dialects.[35]

Affixation, generally (but not always) taking the form of suffixes, occurs rather frequently in Shanghainese, enough so that this feature contrasts even with other Wu varieties,[36] although the line between suffix and particle is somewhat nebulous. Most affixation applies to adjectives.[35] In the example below, the suffix -deusir changes an adjective into a noun.

Words can be reduplicated in order to express various differences in meaning. Nouns, for example, can be reduplicated to express collective or diminutive forms;[35] adjectives so as to intensify or emphasize the associated description; and verbs in order to soften the degree of action.[35] Below is an example of noun reduplication resulting in semantic alteration.

Word compounding is also very common in Shanghainese, a fact observed as far back as Edkins (1868),[38] and is the most productive method of creating new words.[35] Many recent borrowings in Shanghainese originating from European languages are di- or polysyllabic.[39]

Word order

Shanghainese adheres generally to SVO word order.[40] The placement of objects in Wu dialects is somewhat variable, with Southern Wu varieties positioning the direct object before the indirect object, and Northern varieties (especially in the speech of younger people) favoring the indirect object before the direct object. Owing to Mandarin influence,[41] Shanghainese usually follows the latter model.[42]

Older speakers of Shanghainese tend to place adverbs after the verb, but younger people, again under heavy influence from Mandarin, favor pre-verbal placement of adverbs.[43]

The third person singular pronoun xii (he/she/it) or the derived phrase xii ka ("he says") can appear at the end of a sentence. This construction, which appears to be unique to Shanghainese,[44] is commonly employed to project the speaker's differing expectation relative to the content of the phrase.[45]

xii xii ka, ka veq ho

"Unexpectedly, he says no."[46]

Nouns

Except for the limited derivational processes described above, Shanghainese nouns are isolating. There is no inflection for case or number, nor is there any overt gender marking.[33] Although Shanghainese does lack overt grammatical number, the plural marker -la, when suffixed to a human denoting noun, can indicate a collective meaning.[47]

xuqsang-la xeq sir

"students' books"

There are no articles in Shanghainese,[47] and thus, no marking for definiteness or indefiniteness of nouns. Certain determiners (a demonstrative pronoun or numeral classifier, for instance) can imply definite or indefinite qualities, as can word order. A noun absent any sort of determiner in the subject position is definite, whereas it is indefinite in the object position.[47]

Classifiers

Shanghainese boasts numerous classifiers (also sometimes known as "counters" or "measure words"). Most classifiers in Shanghainese are used with nouns, although a small number are used with verbs.[48] Some classifiers are based on standard measurements or containers.[49] Classifiers can be paired with a preceding determiner (often a numeral) to form a compound that further specifies the meaning of the noun it modifies.[48]

Classifiers can be reduplicated to mean "all" or "every", as in:

penpen

(CL-RD for "book")

"every [book]"[51]

Verbs

Shanghainese verbs are analytic and as such do not undergo any sort of conjugation to express tense or person.[52] However, the language does have a richly developed aspect system, expressed using various particles.

Aspect

Some disagreement exists as to how many formal aspect categories exist in Shanghainese,[53] and a variety of different particles can express the same aspect, with individual usage often reflecting generational divisions. Some linguists identify as few as four or six, and others up to twelve specific aspects.[54] Zhu (2006) identifies six relatively uncontroversial aspects in Shanghainese.[55]

Progressive aspect expresses a continuous action. It is indicated by the particles laq, laqlaq or laqhae, which occur pre-verbally.[54]

The resultative aspect expresses the result of an action which was begun before a specifically referenced timeframe, and is also indicated by laq, laqlaq or laqhae, except that these occur post-verbally.[52]

Perfective aspect can be marked by leq, tsir, hao or lae. Notably, tsir is regarded as an old-fashioned usage.[56]

Zhu (2006) identifies a future aspect, indicated by the particle iao.[52]

Qian (1997) identifies a separate immediate future aspect, marked post-verbally by khua.[56]

Experiential aspect expresses the completion of an action before a specifically referenced timeframe, marked post-verbally by the particle ku.[57]

The durative aspect is marked post-verbally by xochii, and expresses a continuous action.[57]

In some cases, it is possible to combine two aspect markers into a larger verb phrase.[57]

Mood and Voice

There is no overt marking for mood in Shanghainese, and Zhu (2006) goes so far as to suggest that the concept of grammatical mood does not exist in the language.[58] There are, however, several modal auxiliaries (many of which have multiple variants) that collectively express concepts of desire, conditionality, potentiality and ability.[58]

"can"	nen / nenkeu / hao
"be able"	ue / ueteq
"may"	khu'ii
"would like"	iao
"should"	inkae
"willing to"	zjinngjioe / ngjioe'ii
"happy to"	kaosjin
"want to"	sjiang / hao

Shen (2016) argues for the existence of a type of passive voice in Shanghainese, governed by the particle be. This construction is superficially similar to by-phrases in English, and only transitive verbs can occur in this form of passive.[59]

Pronouns

Personal pronouns in Shanghainese do not distinguish gender or case.[60] Owing to its isolating grammatical structure, Shanghainese is not a pro-drop language.[43]

	Singular		Plural
1st person	我		阿拉
	ngu		aqla
2nd person	儂	侬	倷
	nung		nna
3rd person	渠		渠拉
	xii		xiila

There is some degree of flexibility concerning pronoun usage in Shanghainese. Older varieties of Shanghainese featured a different 1st person singular, ngunjii or njii,[60][61] and newer varieties feature a variant of the 2nd person plural as aqlaq.[61][62] While Zhu (2006) asserts that there is no inclusive 1st person plural pronoun,[60] Hashimoto (1971) disagrees, identifying aqlaq as being inclusive.[61] There are generational and geographical distinctions in the usage of plural pronoun forms,[62] as well as differences of pronunciation in the 1st person singular.[60]

Reflexive pronouns are formed by the addition of the particle zirka,[63] as in:

Possessive pronouns are formed via the pronominal suffix -xeq.[64]

	Singular	Plural
1st person	nguxeq	aqlaxeq
2nd person	nungxeq	nnaxeq
3rd person	xiixeq	xiilaxeq

Adjectives

Most native Shanghainese adjectives are monosyllabic.[65] Like other parts of speech, adjectives do not change to indicate number, gender or case.[33] Adjectives can take semantic prefixes, which themselves can be reduplicated or repositioned as suffixes according to a complex system of derivation,[66] in order to express degree of comparison or other changes in meaning.[67] Thus:

lang ("cold")

pinlang ("ice-cold")

pinpinlang ("cold as ice")[68]

Interrogatives

The particle va is used to transform ordinary declarative statements into yes/no questions. This is the most common way of forming questions in Shanghainese.

Negation

Nouns and verbs can be negated by the particle mmeq, whereas in most cases only nouns can be negated by veqzir[70] or just veq.[71]

geq veqzir daetsir

(this not-be table)

"This is not a table."[72]

Writing

Chinese characters are used to write Shanghainese. Romanization of Shanghainese was first developed by Protestant English and American Christian missionaries in the 19th century, including Joseph Edkins.[73] Usage of this romanization system was mainly confined to translated Bibles for use by native Shanghainese, or English–Shanghainese dictionaries, some of which also contained characters, for foreign missionaries to learn Shanghainese. A system of phonetic symbols similar to Chinese characters called "New Phonetic Character" were also developed by in the 19th century by American missionary Tarleton Perry Crawford.[74]

Shanghainese is sometimes written informally using homophones: "lemon" (níngméng), written 檸檬 in Standard Chinese, may be written 人門 (person-door; rénmén in standard pinyin) in Shanghainese; and "yellow" (黄; huáng) may be written 王 (meaning king; and wáng in standard pinyin) rather than the standard character 黃 for yellow. These are not homophones in Mandarin, but are homophones in Shanghainese. There are also some homophones in Mandarin which are not homophonic in Shanghainese, e.g. 做, 作 and 坐, all zuò in Standard Mandarin.[75]

Protestant missionaries in the 1800s created the Shanghainese Phonetic Symbols to write Shanghainese phonetically. The symbols are a syllabary similar to the Japanese kana system. The system has not been used and is only seen in a few historical books.[76][77]

See also

• Shanghainese people
• Haipai
• Wu Chinese
  • Suzhounese
  • Hangzhounese
  • Ningbonese
• List of varieties of Chinese
• Chinatown, Flushing

References

Citations

Sources

• Lance Eccles, Shanghai dialect: an introduction to speaking the contemporary language. Dunwoody Press, 1993. ISBN 1-881265-11-0. 230 pp + cassette. (An introductory course in 29 units).
• Xiaonong Zhu, A Grammar of Shanghai Wu. LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics 66, LINCOM Europa, Munich, 2006. ISBN 3-89586-900-7. 201+iv pp.

Further reading

• Chen, Yiya & Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015). "Shanghai Chinese". Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 45 (3): 321–327. doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), with supplementary sound recordings.

• John A. Silsby, Darrell Haug Davis (1907). Complete Shanghai syllabary with an index to Davis and Silsby's Shanghai vernacular dictionary and with the Mandarin pronunciation of each character. American Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 150. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• Joseph Edkins (1868). A grammar of colloquial Chinese: as exhibited in the Shanghai dialect (2 ed.). Presbyterian mission press. pp. 225. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• Shanghai Christian vernacular society (1891). Syllabary of the Shanghai vernacular: Prepared and published by the Shanghai Christian vernacular society. American Presbyterian mission press. pp. 94. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• Rev.John Macgowan (1868). Collection Of Phrases In The Shanghai Dialect (2 ed.). The London Missionary Society. p. 113. Archived from the original on April 15, 2010. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• Gilbert McIntosh (1908). Useful phrases in the Shanghai dialect: With index-vocabulary and other helps (2 ed.). American Presbyterian mission press. p. 113. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• Joseph Edkins (1869). A vocabulary of the Shanghai dialect. Presbyterian mission press. pp. 151. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• Charles Ho, George Foe (1940). Shanghai dialect in 4 weeks: with map of Shanghai. Chi Ming Book Co.press. p. 125. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• John Alfred Silsby (1911). Introduction to the study of the Shanghai vernacular. American Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 53. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• R. A. Parker (1923). Introduction Lessons in the Shanghai dialect: in romanized and character, with key to pronunciation. Shanghai. p. 265. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• Pott, F. L. Hawks (Francis Lister Hawks), 1864–1947 | The ...
• Francis Lister Hawks Pott (1907). Lessons in the Shanghai dialect. Shanghai: Printed at the American Presbyterian mission press.
• Francis Lister Hawks Pott; Frank Joseph Rawlinson (1915). 滬語開路 = Conversational exercises in the Shanghai dialect / Hu yu kai lu = Conversational exercises in the Shanghai dialect. Conversational exercises in the Shanghai dialect. Shanghai: Shanghai mei hua shu guan.
• Francis Lister Hawks Pott (1924). Lessons in the Shanghai dialect (revised ed.). Printed at the Commercial Press. p. 174. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• Francis Lister Hawks Pott (1924). Lessons in the Shanghai dialect. Commercial Press.
• An English-Chinese vocabulary of the Shanghai dialect (2 ed.). Printed at the American Presbyterian Mission Press. 1913. p. 593. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
• "Shanghai steps up efforts to save local language" (Archive). CNN. March 31, 2011.

External links

• Shanghainese audio lesson series: Audio lessons with accompanying dialogue and vocabulary study tools
• Shanghai Dialect: Resources on Shanghai dialect including a Web site (in Japanese) that gives common phrases with sound files
• Wu Association
• IAPSD | International Association for Preservation of the Shanghainese Dialect
• Recordings of Shanghainese are available through Kaipuleohone, including talking about entertainment and food, and words and sentences

На других языках

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[de] Shanghai-Dialekt

Der Shanghai-Dialekt, auch Shanghaiisch oder Shanghainesisch (chinesisch .mw-parser-output .Hant{font-size:110%}上海話 / 上海话, Pinyin shànghǎihuà) genannt, gehört zur Wu-Dialektgruppe des Chinesischen.

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- [en] Shanghainese

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[es] Dialecto shanghainés

El shanghainés (上海言话 [zɑ̃˨.'he˦.ɦɛ˨.ɦʊ˩], autoglotónimo shanghainés), a veces referido como el dialecto de Shanghái, es un dialecto del idioma wu hablado en la ciudad de Shanghái —el número total de hablantes de wu es de cerca de 80 millones, por lo que es la segunda lengua más hablada en China después del mandarín—.

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[fr] Shanghaïen

Le shanghaïen (en chinois : 上海话 ; transcription en shanghaïen : zanhererau /zɑ̃˨.ˈhe˦.ɦɛ˨.ɦʊ˩/ ; en pinyin : shànghǎihuà), parfois appelé dialecte de Shanghai, est une forme dialectale du wu parlé dans la ville de Shanghai. Au sein du groupe linguistique wu, il représente la forme septentrionale. Avec quatorze millions de locuteurs, c'est la forme la plus répandue au sein de ce groupe linguistique.

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[ru] Шанхайский диалект

Шанхайский диалект (самоназвание: 上海閒話 Zanhererau [z̥ɑ̃̀héɦɛ̀ɦʊ̀], 沪语 wugniu [ɦu ɲy]; кит. трад. 上海閒話, упр. 上海言话, пиньинь Shànghǎi yánhuà, палл. шанхай яньхуа) — это китайский диалект группы у, распространённый в Шанхае. Шанхайский и другие уские диалекты непонятны на слух носителям севернокитайского языка. Благодаря тому, что современные шанхайцы являются потомками иммигрантов нескольких волн, шанхайский диалект является наиболее представительным среди северных (тайхуских) диалектов группы у, он содержит слова и выражения, встречающиеся на всей зоне распространения северных уских диалектов. Помимо этого, шанхайский — самый большой диалект группы у по числу носителей: до 14 млн человек.

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