The A-Hmao language, also known as Large Flowery Miao (Chinese: 大花苗) or Northeast Yunnan Miao (Diandongbei, Chinese: 苗语滇东北方言), is a Hmongic language spoken in China. It is the language the Pollard script was designed for,[2][3] and displays extensive tone sandhi.[4] There is a high degree of literacy in Pollard among the older generation.

A-Hmao language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

The standard written language, both in Pollard and in Latin script, is that of Shíménkǎn (石门坎) village in Weining County.

Classification

The A-Hmao language is a branch of the West Hmongic languages, also known as Chuanqiandian Miao (川黔滇方言: Sichuan–Guizhou–Yunnan Miao) and Western Miao, is the major branch of the Hmongic languages of China and Southeast Asia.

Wang Fushi (1985) grouped the Western Miao languages into eight primary divisions.[5]

1. Chuanqiandian Miao
2. Northeast Yunnan Miao (A-Hmao language)
3. Guiyang Miao
4. Huishui Miao
5. Mashan Miao
6. Luobohe Miao
7. Chong'anjiang Miao
8. Pingtang Miao

History

The Miao was descended from the "Jiuli" tribe in the period of Yan Di and Huang Di, "Sanmiao" in the period of Yao and Shun. "Jiuli" is a tribe, which lived in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River more than five thousand years ago. Then, the "Jiuli" tribe were defeated at the Battle of Zhuolu by the military coalition of Huang Di and Yan Di. Chiyou, the leader of the "Jiuli" tribe, was caught and killed by Huang Di. The rest of the "Jiuli" tribe retreated to the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and formed the "Sanmiao" tribe, the established Sanmiao Country.

Four thousand years ago, the Huaxia tribe of the North led by Yao, Shun, and Yu had been fighting with "Sanmiao" for nearly one thousand years. In the end, Xiayu defeated "Sanmiao" Country. After they were defeated, some of the "Sanmiao" were banished to "Sanwei" (the border of present provinces of Shanxi and Gansu). Then, they were forced to migrate to the southeast. After a long time, they entered into the north of Sichuan, northeast of Yunnan, and northwest of Guizhou. Later, the present Western Miao was developed. The descendant of "Sanmiao" which stationed in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and the Central Plains Area, some of them merged with Huaxia tribe, and others developed to what was called "Nanman" in Shang and Zhou Dynasty.

Those who lived in the middle reaches of Han River were called "Jingchu barbarians". Later, the advanced "Jingchu barbarians" gradually developed to Chu tribe, which was developed. The less advanced part continued to immigrate to the adjacent mountainous area of Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hubei and Henan Provinces and became the ancestors of present East and Central Miao.[6]

Geographic distribution

The A-Mao language is distributed in Zhaotong, Kunming, Qujing and Chuxiong Yi autonomous prefecture in the Northeast of Yunnan Province. And also Weining Yi, Hui, and Miao autonomous county, Hezhang county, Liupanshui, and Ziyun Miao and Buyi autonomous county in the West of Guizhou Province. There are 300,000 native speakers.[7] The standard dialect is that of Shimenkan (石门坎), Weining County (威宁县).

Phonology

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Consonants

Vowels

Tones

• On the basis of the 8 tones of A-Hmao language, in the eastern region, the 4th, 6th, and 8th tones are broken up partially or entirely into two categories. At most, it can be up to 11 tones. Basically, nouns and quantifiers are part of the first category, and they are higher in pitch. Other word classes are part of the second category, and they are lower in pitch.
• The A-Hmao language displays extensive tone sandhi. Similar to other branches of the West Hmongic languages, the tone sandhi happens on the second syllable when the first syllable of a disyllable word is level tone (1st and 2nd tone).[8]

Grammar

Morphology and vocabulary

The morphology of the three branches of the Hmong language is basically the same. The following examples are from Central Miao.[9] A-Hmao is similar to Hmong, which is an isolating language in which most morphemes are monosyllables. As a result, verbs are not overtly inflected. Tense, aspect, mood, person, number, gender, and case are indicated lexically.[10]

Single-morpheme word

1. Monosyllable single-morpheme word. (single-morpheme words are mostly monosyllable in Hmong language)

   Example:

   naxi human being

   xed tiger

   et tree

   wil I

   mongx you

   nenx he

   hsangb thousand

   wangs ten thousand

   bat hundred

   lol come

   mongl go; leave

2. Multisyllable single-morpheme word. (There is a small number of multisyllable single-morpheme word in Hmong language. Mostly, they are disyllable, and there is very little of 3 or more syllables.)
   1. Alliterative. Example:

      gangt git hurry up; quickly

      qut qat itchy

      hcud hxangd nausea

   2. Vowel rhyme. Example:

      Same tone:

      bal nial girl

      box jox run

      bux lux boiling

      daib ghaib star

      dent ent cloud

      vongs nongs dirty

      Different tones:

      hsab ngas clean

      hsangd dangl in case

      kak liax magpie

   3. Non-alliterative and vowel rhyme. Example:

      ak wol crow

      bil hsaid nearly; almost

      ghob yenl chair

   4. Reiterative syllable. Example:

      gid gid slowly

      seix seix together

      nangl nangl still

      xangd xangd occasionally

Compound word

1. Coordinating
   1. Noun morpheme compound with noun morpheme. Example:

      hveb hseid language

      haxub khat relative

      nangx bit name

      niangx hniut age

   2. Verb morpheme compound with verb morpheme. Example:

      cub nul rebuke

      tid xongt construct

      khab job lesson

   3. Adjective morpheme compound with adjective morpheme. Example:

      ghongl jangl bend

      khed hxat poverty

2. Modifying
   1. Noun morpheme modifying noun morpheme. Example:

      det diangx candle

      det diux key

      eb mais tears

      gad wangx corn

   2. Adjective morpheme modifying noun morpheme. Example:

      bad yut uncle

      mais lul aunt

3. Dominating
   1. Verb morpheme dominating noun morpheme. Example:

      dlangd wangb dress up

      qet ves rest

   2. Adjective morpheme dominating noun morpheme. Example:

      dad hvib patience

      hvent ves pleasantly cool

      mais bil proficiency

      mais ves tired

4. Affixes

   Mostly are prefixes, and commonly used prefixes are ghab-, diub-, hangd-, gid-, jib-, daib-, bod-, xuk-, and so on. Ghab- is the most commonly used.

   1. Ghab- means human or animal body and part, plant part and things related to plants, natural objects, things related to buildings, utensils and abstract objectives. Example:

      ghab jid body

      ghab naix ear

      ghab ghaib root

      ghab nex leaf

      ghab qangb living room

      ghab sot kicken

      ghab dliux soul

      ghabnangs destiny

   2. Diub- means location. Example:

      diub senx provincial capital

      dioub ghaib on the street

      diub zaid at home

   3. Hangd-/khangd- means aspect and direction. Example:

      hangd nongx hangd nangl aspect of eating and wearing

      hangd nongd here

      hangd momgx there

      hangd deis where

   4. Gid- means aspect and direction. Example:

      gid waix above

      gid dab below

      gid gux outside

      gid niangs inside

   5. Jib- means person. Example:

      jib daib child

      jib hlangb grandchild

      jib bad man

   6. Daib- means person and some kinship terminology. Example:

      daib pik girl

      daib jangs man, boy, husband

      daib nenl uncle

   7. Bod- means round object. Example:

      bod vib stone

      bod ghof jus knee

      bod liul fist

   8. Xuk- means uncertain quantity.

      xuk laix a handful of

Syntax

The syntax of Hmong languages, regardless of the type of part of speech or phrase and the division of constituents of the sentence and the sentence types, are basically the same.[11] The basic word order of Hmong is SVO. Within the noun phrase, possessors precede possessed nouns, and adjectives and relative clauses follow the nouns they modify. Noun phrases have the form as (possessive) + (quantifier) + (classifier) + noun + (adjective) + (demonstrative).[12] As in Chinese, question formation does not involve word order change. For wh- questions, the wh- word does not occupy a sentence-initial position in Hmong as in many other languages. (e.g. the English sentence ‘What are you doing?’ would be rendered ‘you do what’ in Hmong)[9]

Writing system

The A-Hmao have no indigenous writing system. In the beginning of the 20th century, missionary Samuel Pollard invented the Pollard script, which was based on the decorative symbols on their clothing. Before the introduction of the Pollard script, the A-Hmao people recorded their history through their ancient songs and weaving the history of their memories on their clothes. Those images formed a history of the A-Hmao.[13]

References

Further reading

External links

• A-Hmao (Diandongbei) basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
• 283-word wordlists in Wuding Jiyi A-Hmao 花苗 dialect, elicited in Standard Mandarin, archived with Kaipuleohone. (KG2-003, KG2-019)

На других языках

[fr] A hmao